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ALL ABOUT AIRCRAFT OF TODAY 



BY THE SAME AUTHOR 

All About Treasures of 
the Earth" 

1 All About Inventions and 
Discoveries " 

Railway Wonders of the 
World" 

' Aeroplanes and Dirigibles 
of War" 

etc. etc. etc. 




DROPPING THE MAIL. 



All About Aircraft 
of Today 






By 
FREDERICK A. TALBOT 



With a Coloured Plate and numerous 
Black-and- White Illustrations 



New York 
FUNK AND WAGNALLS COMPANY 



ri_.fr- 



Gift 
Publisher 

SEP 8 «20 



AUTHOR'S NOTE 

In the preparation of this volume I have been assisted by 
many friends. I am especially indebted to the courtesy of 
Mr. W. M. Letts, C.B.E., the presiding genius of the 
destinies of Crossley Motors, Limited, for permission to visit 
and roam over the magnificent National Aircraft Factory 
which he built and equipped at Heaton Chapel, Stockport, 
to meet the national demand for aeroplanes, and to his 
technical staff in regard to the extension of information 
concerning the construction and equipment of the aeroplane. 
My thanks are also due to Messrs. Short Brothers, Limited, 
for facilities to visit the naval airship works at Cardington, 
Bedford, and to Mr. E. H. Mitchell, the General Manager 
of the establishment, particularly in connection with the 
construction of vessels for trans-oceanic service. I am 
similarly under an obligation to Messrs. Iliffe and Coatalen 
for permission to wander over their works to follow the 
construction of aircraft engines through their many stages, 
and also to the Handley Page Aeroplane Company, the 
operations of which I was enabled to study at close quarters. 
I have likewise received every courtesy and all desired 
information from the British and Colonial Aeroplane 
Company, Limited, of Bristol ; Messrs. Vickers, Limited ; 
The Rolls-Royce Company, Limited; and many other 

v 



Author's Note 

friends and firms for data and photographs concerning their 
activities; also to The Thornton-Pickard Manufacturing 
Company, Limited, of Altrincham, and to Messrs. Aldis 
Brothers, Limited, of Birmingham, in connection with their 
fascinating efforts to render aerial photography so perfect 
as it is to-day. 



vi 



CONTENTS 



CHArTER 

i. The Dawn of Commercial Aviation . 

2. Why We Are Able to Fly 

3. The Man, the Machine, and the Air 

4. The Structure of the Aeroplane . 

5. The Construction of an Aeroplane . 

6. "Safety First" in the Air 

7. Some British Aeromotors of To-day 

8. The Testing of an Aeromotor . 

9. An Airship in the Making 

10. The Seaplane 

11. How the Flying Man Finds His Way 

12. The Rules of the Road in the Air 

13. The Highways of the Air 

14. Some Typical British Aeroplanes of To-day 

15. The Life-Belt of the Air 

16. The Flying Machine as a Mail Carrier 

17. Aerial Photography — The New Pastime 

18. Exploring and Surveying by Air 

19. Dirigible Airships for Trans-oceanic Traffic 

20. The Aerial Mercantile Marine as a Profession 



PAGE 

I 

20 

42 
6l 

71 

9 I 
IO4 
141 
153 
I76 
187 
200 
214 
226 
267 
277 
289 
311 
329 
352 



LIST OF PLATES 

Dropping the Mail .... Frontispiece 

FACING PAGE 

Aeroplane Building at the Crossley Motor Works 64 

Aeroplane Building at the Crossley Motor Works 80 

Building 100 Aeroplanes a Month ... 92 

Copper Depositing Plant for Water- Jackets of 

Beardmore Aeromotors 96 

Aeroplane Building at the Crossley Motor Works 96 
Aeroplane Building . . . . . .112 

The First Crossley-Built Aeroplane . . .112 
The Bealdmore Aeromotor . . . ... 124 

The Driving Force Behind the " Blimp " . . 128 
The Aeromotor Surprise of 1919 .... 128 

The Most Powerful Aeromotor of 1919 . . 134 
Another Member of the " Sunbeam " Aeromotor 

Family ........ 144 

Putting the Aeromotor Through its Paces . -150 
A British Dirigible in the Making . . . 160 
Building a British Dirigible at the Cardington 

Airship Factory ...... 166 

How a British Dirigible is Built .... 170 
Wing Car or Engine Gondola for H.M.A. R37 . 176 
The Dirigible on the Stocks and in the Air . 180 



List of Plates 

FACING PAGK 

Across the Andes by Aeroplane .... 193 
How the " Napier " Altitude Record of 30,500 ft. 

was made 198 

An Ingenious Instrument for calculating Earth 

Distance 208 

Finding the Way Through the Air . . . 208 

The Latest Triumph of the Aeroplane Builder . 224 

The Bristol Coupe 224 

The " Bristol Triplane " as a Passenger and 

Cargo Carrier ....... 240 

The Boulton and Paul Commercial Aeroplanes . 256 
The " Vickers " Passengers-Mail-Freight Aero- 
plane 262 

Solving the Aeroplane Housing Problem . . 272 

The " Berlin Bomber " or " Super- Handle y " in- 
Commercial Guise 284 

Comfort in the Air 296 

H.M. Air-Liner " Great Britain " . . . . 304 

Photographing from the Clouds . . . .310 

Photography from the Air with the Thornton- 

Pickard Aerial Camera 320 

The Victor of the Trans-Atlantic Flight . . 326 

30,500 ft. up 326 

By Airco between London and Paris . . . 336 

Flying de Luxe 342 

For Civilian Flight 342 

How the Airman Finds His Way in the Air . 353 



ALL ABOUT AIRCRAFT OF 
TO-DAY 

CHAPTER I 
The Dawn of Commercial Aviation 

THE year 1919 stands out as one of the milestones in the 
eternal march of progress. It recorded the definite intro- 
duction of the movement of passengers and freight under 
commercial conditions by way of the air. A dream, spread 
over centuries, was at last fulfilled. Ambitious, restless man, 
after grappling with stupendous problems and wrestling with 
tremendous issues of a severely technical character, succeeded 
in turning the atmosphere into a highway for travel. 

Yet, if we reflect, we cannot fail to acknowledge that 
progress in this field, except during the closing stages of the 
Great Adventure, has been slow. Eliminating the wildly 
fantastic and the grotesque, as well as the ingenious ideas 
of the mediaeval experimenters, whose efforts were fore- 
doomed to failure from the complete absence of all suitable 
means wherewith to propel their conceptions through the 
air, advance has been tedious and precarious; that is, in 
comparison with relative achievements in the other realms 
of transportation— rail, sea, and road — each of which was 
considered equally impracticable and wildly sensational in 
its day. 

b 1 



All About Aircraft of To-Day 

In 1813 "Puffing Billy" was working, promisingly at a 
colliery in the north of England. Eight years later the pos- 
sibilities of the steam locomotive had secured such a grip 
upon popular imagination as to lead to the construction of 
the first iron road essentially for the new means of movement 
— the Stockton and Darlington Railway, which was opened 
for traffic in 1825. Within the brief span of seventeen years 
the locomotive not only had established its commercial poten- 
tialities, but was being brought into increasing use far and 
wide upon an elaborate scale. As with the railway so with 
the steamship. In 1802 the possibility of driving vessels 
through the water by steam was conclusively demonstrated 
with the Charlotte Dundas ; but Bell clinched the matter 
beyond all refutation in 1812 with his Comet. It was not 
many years before steamships were plying, not only upon the 
coastal waters of Britain and North America, but were essay- 
ing to plough the deeper and more tempestuous open oceans. 
The development of motor traffic was equally rapid, if con- 
sidered in the high-speed internal combustion-engine aspect. 
The years 1883-4 witnessed the perfection of the first vehicle. 
The Paris-Rouen race was run in 1894, and in 1896 anti- 
quated legislation, which had retarded expansion and de- 
velopment in these islands, was repealed. From that date 
advance was spectacularly rapid in every field of application. 

Flying has progressed at a much slower pace. It was 
nearly thirty years ago that the trail through the air was 
blazed by the French engineer Ader. His achievement, 
somewhat limited, it is true, imparted a new zest to experi- 
ment and endeavour, because success appeared to be within 
arm's length; but it was not so. Matters drifted somewhat 
until 1903, when quite a new outlook was presented by the 
Wright Brothers, in an aeroplane of their own design and 

2 



The Dawn of Commercial Aviation 

construction, fitted with a motor which likewise was their own 
creation, flying 260 metres in 59 seconds on December 17, 
at Dayton, U.S.A. The American achievement, however, 
failed to arouse the widespread interest which it deserved 
and which might have been expected. It was received with 
incredulity mainly for the reason that the reports appeared 
to be ambiguous, if not utterly lacking in convincing detail ; 
but this was due to the reticence of the inventors, who, natur- 
ally, were not prepared to be communicative as to how 
dynamic flight could be accomplished, until they had secured 
the utmost protection which the law can extend to the fruit 
of brains. 

Meanwhile experiment was in full swing in Europe, the 
manifestation of enterprise in this field having preceded the 
receipt of the intelligence from American sources concerning 
the work of the Wright Brothers. The Old World investi- 
gators frankly declined to believe all that trickled across the 
Atlantic, and so continued to pursue their way unconcerned, 
although the mystery surrounding the work in progress at 
Dayton unwittingly acted as a powerful stimulant to greater 
effort. It was Santos Dumont and his intrepidity, first with 
his small airships and subsequently with diminutive aero- 
planes, which appealed to the human emotion and riveted the 
eyes of Europe upon his endeavours, which culminated in the 
flight of 230 yards in 21.2 seconds at Bagatelle, France, on 
November 12, 1906. The brothers Farman were also in the 
field striving for recognition, and it was they who really 
brought home for the first time in a vivid manner the part 
which the air was destined to serve as a highway for traffic 
with their flight of 1,093 yards, during which they notched a 
speed of 34 miles an hour, on January 13, 1908. 

Progress now was somewhat accelerated. On July 25, 
3 



All About Aircraft of To-Day 

1909, Bleriot flew the Channel, thereby bringing home to the 
British public the disconcerting fact that we were not so 
effectively isolated from the European mainland as we had 
been for centuries past. We might control the seas and hold 
potential aggressive continental navies at bay, but the way 
of the air opened up quite a new situation. To maintain the 
splendid protection which heretofore our insular position had 
extended we would need to acquire the dominion of the air 
as well. So much was perfectly obvious ; but, as subsequent 
events amply proved, we failed to realise the true significance 
of this menace. Strenuous efforts were made to rouse us 
from our apathy, but in vain; we refused to be stampeded 
into action even though it were to make our security doubly 
secure. 

As a matter of fact, aviation in Britain was regarded with 
indifference. The ventures of the air were regarded as 
comparable with the daring feats of the acrobat and the wire- 
walker in the peripatetic circus. The idea of establishing 
an industry comparable with that associated with the motor- 
car was received with an utter lack of enthusiasm, while the 
opportunity to dispute the domain of the air with the bird 
did not fire our sporting instincts. A powerful effort was 
made to inflame the British imagination. Lord Northcliffe, 
with characteristic foresight, realised the peril of our national 
lethargy, and set out to overcome the danger by extending 
practical encouragement to British effort. Through the Daily 
Mail tempting prizes were offered for what appeared, in those 
days, to be wildly impossible feats, doubtless in the feeling 
that when the Britisher is confronted with the ostensibly 
unattainable he at once sets out to secure it. At all events 
it proved to be so in this case because the prizes to be won 
made irresistible appeal to the British sporting instinct, 

4 



The Dawn of Commercial Aviation 

although we had already lagged so far behind our Con- 
tinental rivals as to be considered out of the running. 

Appreciating the real value of keen friendly rivalry the 
prizes were not reserved to British airmen. Other nations 
were quite at liberty to compete, and they did so to very 
material advantage, which only served to throw our own 
backwardness into still more striking relief, and, at the same 
time, acted as a more powerful spur to the spirit of determina- 
tion to excel. Of five prizes aggregating £31,100 offered by 
the Daily Mail, four, totalling £21,100 in value, fell to French 
victors. Henry Farman set the pace by carrying off the first 
prize of £100 for a half-mile circular flight, on January 13, 
1908, at the same time securing the Deutsch-Archdeacon 
prize of .£2,000. Ble>iot, with his three-cylindered 22-28h.p. 
engined monoplane, captured the £1,000 offered for spanning 
the Channel by dynamic flight on July 25, 1909. Louis 
Paulhan secured the £10,000 London-to-Manchester prize 
by covering the 183 miles separating the two cities in 252 
minutes with one intermediate stop, April 27-28, 1910, while 
it was Lieutenant " Beaumont " (Conneau) who bore off in 
triumph, in July, 191 1, the £10,000 extended for the aerial 
circuit of Great Britain. Truly the French airmen may be 
said to have "scooped the pool," only one insignificant prize 
of £100 falling to a British competitor, J. T. C. Moore- 
Brabazon, for his circular flight with a British machine in 
October, 1909, although this was a contest from which 
Continental rivals were virtually barred. 

During the critical period of development — 1907-1912 — ■ 
Britain may be said to have cut a very sorry figure, not only 
in the creation of airmen, but in the design and fabrication 
of machines wherewith they might fly. If, however, the 
British failed lamentably to hold their own in the air during 

5 



All About Aircraft of To-Day 

the experimental days they more than atoned for their 
remissness by carrying off the greatest prize of all — the 
,£10,000 offered by the Daily Mail for flying the Atlantic 
which was triumphantly, even sensationally, won by Captain 
Sir John Alcock, D.S.C., and Lieutenant Sir Arthur Whitten 
Brown, on June 14-15, 1919, by the flight over the span of 
1,880 miles of salt water separating St. John's, Newfound- 
land, from Clifden, Ireland, in 15 hours 57 minutes. 

When one recalls the unrivalled inventive record of the 
nation, the British attitude of indifference towards the way of 
the air during the accepted experimental era may seem to be 
remarkable. But what may appear to be still more amazing 
is that that spirit of apathy still prevails, and to a startling 
degree. Even the transatlantic flight failed to arouse more 
than passing interest. It was accepted as an achievement in 
accordance with Brftish traditions — that the British can do 
anything when they feel so minded or when circumstances 
compel. The contemporary general interest assumed towards 
flying is comparable with that manifested towards other 
sensational performances, while even interest of an intimate 
character may be likened to that produced by the first actual 
experience of shooting the chutes, or looping the loop side- 
shows, at popular exhibitions. 

This inability to grasp the full significance of dynamic 
flight, and the display of peculiarly narrow interest are 
readily explicable. The outbreak of war naturally relegated 
the commercial aspect of flying to the background. The 
national interests were far more vital, and so everything was 
subjugated to their complete satisfaction. During the five 
years of hostilities the nation was thrilled with the amazing 
feats and often incredible exploits of its fighting-men of the 
air. They were astonished at the growth of the Third Arm. 

6 



The Dawn of Commercial Aviation 

Also, the terrific European conflict stirred British productive 
effort as no other force could have done, and in 1919 Britain 
reached a position as far in advance of her rivals as she 
lagged behind them in 1914. 

The subordination of all other interests to those of a 
military and naval character during five weary years created 
a totally false atmosphere. For sixty months the development 
of the aeroplane was pursued to one purpose— the scattering 
of death and the wreaking of destruction. Consequently the 
man-in-the-street, the woman-at-home and the boy-at-school 
came to regard the flying machine merely as an instrument 
of frightfulness. In many quarters it is held out to possess 
no more commercial possibilities than the submarine. The 
latter can be converted into a commercial craft and one 
whereby many of the disadvantages incidental to ordinary 
sea travel may be avoided in precisely the same way as 
aerial travel overcomes many of the defects associated with 
normal movement upon the railway, highway and marine 
lanes. 

Efforts to remove this impression are being made by 
individual flights, but even these in certain circumstances 
savour too much of the sensational to he impressive, while in 
others they are consummated, not from the true commercial 
point of view, but rather as a subtle form of advertisement. 
So ingrained is the feeling that the flying machine is 
essentially a weapon of war that the mass of the peoples of 
the world, especially those who were compelled to live, move, 
and have their being in what might be called the fighting 
arena, resolutely declines to believe that it can ever be turned 
to commercial account. To the average lay mind it appears 
about as feasible to convert a fighting aeroplane into a vehicle 
of commerce as to transform an 18-inch gun into a motor-car, 

7 



All About Aircraft of To-Day 

or a death-and-destruction-dealing mine into a talking 
machine. It has not yet grasped the commercial possibilities 
of flying ; it does not realise that in the aeroplane we have a 
force capable of shrinking the world, time, and distance into 
insignificantly brief factors. It has not yet awakened to the 
fact that here is a new rival, which is destined to make a bold 
bid for certain of the traffic at present borne by our express 
trains, greyhounds of the ocean, and speedy motor carriers of 
the road. 

With the airship it is different. We were forced to realise 
the possibilities of the dirigible long before the clash of arms 
re-echoed round the world. From that momentous afternoon 
of August 9, 1884, when Captains Krebs and Renard, by 
their completion of an aerial circuit, established the fact that 
an airship could be manoeuvred in the air independently of 
the forces of Nature as easily as a vessel can be controlled 
upon the bosom of the ocean, the airship became accepted 
as an accomplished factor. Count von Zeppelin, despite the 
derision which His repeated disasters provoked, clinched the 
matter. So far as the superiority of the dirigible is concerned 
its success has undoubtedly been the direct result of 
psychological forces. We pooh-poohed the likelihood of such 
monstrous craft ever being able to venture very far, but when 
they brought the war to our doors during the early years of 
the war, they completely removed all lingering doubts upon 
this score. In war they proved far more destructive, both 
materially and morally, than the aeroplane. A striking 
revulsion of feeling set in. The airship which had been 
ridiculed became accepted as the future vessel of the air. Its 
complete safety in the modern form, its enormous raclius of 
action, its flexibility, its capacity to float, owing to the 
possession of inherent buoyancy, its superior manoeuvring 

8 



The Dawn of Commercial Aviation 

powers, its comfort and its ability to move relatively big- 
cargoes — all these factors serve to invest the airship with 
superiority over the aeroplane in the minds of the average 
individual. 

To bring home the possibilities of the aeroplane is certain 
to prove a tedious task. A ceaseless and aggressive campaign 
of enlightenment and education will be imperative, and many 
years must necessarily be occupied in this uphill task. The 
achievements of war count for little or nothing in the eyes of 
the people who must be won over to assure commercial 
success for the new force which is destined to effect such a 
complete transformation of our complex social and industrial 
life. We know that enormous strides were made during the 
war in the perfection of the aeroplane. We appreciate, even 
if only faintly, that under the stress of five years' incessant 
battling for superiority over a stubborn well-equipped enemy, 
raised and trained for war, as much progress was 
achieved by Britain in the domain of dynamic flight as would 
have been recorded during a quarter of a century's normal 
development. Even the most unsophisticated among us 
know equally well that military and naval exigencies com- 
pelled the incurrence of risks which would never have been 
tolerated for one moment under peace conditions. What did 
it matter if a machine, costing thousands of pounds, crashed 
upon its first flight to become resolved into a tangled heap of 
torn linen, broken wires, splintered wood and shattered 
engine? The country paid the bill. Of what significance 
was it that a brave man lost his life in trying out a new 
idea? It was dismissed as an incident inseparable from war. 
But consider the situation from the commercial point of view. 
A crashed machine represents a material loss to the owner 
or underwriter. Those who are exposed to the risk of being 

9 



All About Aircraft of To-Day 

called upon to reimburse the damage wrought exercise a 
restraining influence, while, if insurance is ignored, then the 
company associated with the enterprise, if crashes are many, 
must be prepared to enjoy but a fleeting existence. Again, 
under peace conditions, a higher value is set upon human 
life, and recurrence of fatalities is certain to provoke as fierce 
and widespread an outbreak of public feeling against the 
aeroplane as did the death-roll incidental to motor-racing 
bring about the abandonment of this form of sport. 

What has war contributed to the new science ? What is 
the position to-day ? What influence will the lessons of the 
battlefield and the seas exercise upon future developments ? 
If the answer must be unequivocal, war has not exercised 
any decisive influence in so far as the actual science of aero- 
nautics is concerned. The flying machine of 1919 is what 
it was in 1914 — a mechanically propelled kite. No sensa- 
tional revolutions in regard to design have been recorded, 
while in one or two directions war has really hindered 
progress. 

The fields in which important benefits have been be- 
stowed, however, are many and of far-reaching significance. 
The aeroplane was taken over to become regarded as an 
instrument of national importance. Individual effort for the 
most part became submerged. The country had first call 
upon the most brilliant brains and most accomplished manu- 
facturing skill. From John o'Groats to Land's End extended 
one vast national aeroplane manufactory. A laboratory such 
as private enterprise could never have created became es- 
tablished, and there were unlimited funds in the bank of the 
National Treasury to furnish the sinews with which progress 
alone can be recorded. It was immaterial how much an ex- 
periment would be likely to cost. It was pursued. Ideas 



The Dawn of Commercial Aviation 

might crowd upon one another in an amazing manner, but 
that did not preclude them being submitted to the test. Any- 
thing and everything which was desired was forthcoming; 
expense was no object. The nation was not in the position 
of a private company, which is necessarily compelled to study 
the claims of those who finance operations — the shareholders. 
We were all shareholders in the National Aeronautical 
Laboratory and Factory, and expected no return beyond 
maintenance of our homes and shores. 

In this manner it became possible to control inventive 
ability. There was no competition. The product of brains 
became classified and diverted into well-defined channels, to 
be pursued to its logical conclusion. The galaxy of talent, by 
skilful selection, achieved many startling wonders. It contri- 
buted to the defining of constitutional scientific laws and their 
due observance ; the freakish was ruled out. It led to stan- 
dardisation and the evolution of the most perfect designs. We 
learned much concerning materials; the precise adaptability 
of this wood and that metal for specific purposes. The primi- 
tive was forced to one side to make way for the ultra-modern 
and mechanical. Every conceivable branch of the craft was 
covered, and the maximum amount of brains possible for 
each ramification was secured and turned to account. Behind 
it all was exercised a driving force or pressure which could 
not be subjugated. The policy, "We must have it; never 
mind the cost " alone prevailed. 

What is the position of affairs to-day? The lever of 
national incentive has been withdrawn ; it has accomplished 
its work. The companies swept into the vast net have been 
released. They have reverted to the positions they occupied 
in 1914, or, if born since then, have been freed to pursue 
their ways untrammelled. Each now stands upon its own 



All About Aircraft of To-Day 

footing. There is no inexhaustible barrel in which to dip 
for the requisite finance. The shareholders once again be- 
come the dominant factor. The national laboratory has been 
dissolved. Each firm must now establish its own thinking 
department and evolve its own ideas. In these circumstances 
the pace has slowed down, and for the next decade progress 
promises to be exceedingly slow, unless something revolu- 
tionary is produced by science to change the whole aspect of 
things. Competition is restored not only between the various 
manufacturing firms, but with the other and accepted 
channels of movement and communication. To-day, in the 
conduct of any commercial transaction, the question arises, 
"Shall I use the aeroplane, the steamboat, the railway, the 
motor-car, the telephone, the telegraph, or wireless?" In 
other words the way of the air is relegated to a well-defined 
niche, and is brought into conflict with coldly-calculating, 
unemotional commerce. 

Under the incentive offered by national necessity we have 
been able to attain overwhelming world-wide supremacy. 
The British aeroplane is conceded to be a masterpiece of 
design and construction. The rigid standardisation of 
materials has made it possible to present machines which, for 
strength, cannot be excelled. Then in regard to engines 
enormous strides have been made, and the development of 
the power for the mechanical unit is truly startling. Ten 
years ago the machine with which Bleriot flew the Channel 
developed only 22-28 h.p. ; now we are equipping machines 
with monsters as beautifully designed and built as a chrono- 
meter of 350 h.p., while contemporary airships are being 
fitted with giants developing 900 h.p. Speeds have risen 
amazingly during the decade, the two extremes being the 
45 miles an hour notched by Bleriot as compared with 



The Dawn of Commercial Aviation 

velocities ranging up to 150 miles an hour which have 
recently been recorded. 

With improved aeroplanes having more reliable engines 
the radius of action has increased rapidly. Places which six 
years ago appeared to be wellnigh inaccessible from London 
by air in a quick flight, or the realisation of which constituted 
a remote dream, are now regarded as common-place achieve- 
ments. It is doubtful whether such big efforts to determine 
the endurance of the machine and of the man at the helm 
would have been made under peace conditions. War applied 
the spur. Lieutenant Marchal set the pace in this direction 
by establishing a record of 811 miles in June, 1916, with his 
flight from France to the Russian frontier, via Berlin. 
This was topped fourteen months later by the aerial run made 
by Captain Marquess Guilio Laureati from Turin to Naples 
without any descent, a distance of nearly 920 miles. The 
following month, September, 19 17, this intrepid aviator 
accomplished another striking performance with his cross- 
continental flight of 3,656 miles from Turin to London. 

Flights such as these demand the provision of supple- 
mentary fuel tanks, involving departures from standard 
design, or, at all events, normal commercial practice. Con- 
sequently, the next step was the achievement of comparable 
long journeys in easy stages, the intermediate descents being- 
made to secure further supplies of petrol, and without making 
attempts to establish time records. In this direction must be 
mentioned Commander Savory's flight over the 2,000 miles 
separating London from Constantinople in December, 19 17, 
and the more leisurely run from England to India by Major 
Maclaren, and that of Lieutenant-Colonel W. D. Beatty from 
London to Madrid on May 12, 1919. 

It was the subjugation of the Atlantic by air which 
13 



All About Aircraft of To-Day 

revived the public enthusiasm in the aeroplane, although, at 
the same time, it brought home very convincingly the fact 
that we have a very long row to hoe, and that considerable 
time must yet elapse before the aerial highway can be 
regarded as being able to sustain traffic with that clock-like 
regularity identified with our railways, streets, and ocean 
lanes. It effectively nonplussed those who were so stren- 
uously advocating the immediate establishment of long- 
distance aerial routes, and who talked lightly of circumflying 
the earth in a week. Hawker's unfortunate fall into the 
Atlantic after covering 1,000 miles, and the failure of two 
out of three competitive American flying-men to make the 
Azores, brought home the susceptibility of the power unit 
to failure; that it had not yet been advanced to a sufficient 
degree of reliability to enable it to carry the plane anywhere, 
at any time, and under all and varying conditions. The feat 
of Commander Read, of the United States Navy, who, 
leaving Trepassey Bay, Newfoundland, on May 16, 1919, 
making the Azores 1,381 miles, Lisbon 1,094 miles and 
Plymouth 895 miles — a total mileage of 3,370 — but who did 
not reach his destination until May 31, testified very clearly 
that the aeroplane was not to be considered as a serious rival 
to the established systems of transit. The Alcock-Brown 
flight of 1,880 miles in 15 hours 57 minutes created the 
greatest measure of excitement, but not so much from the 
circumstance that the Atlantic was spanned in one big aerial 
leap, as from the high average speed attained — 117^ miles 
an hour — and the wonderful endurance of the men in charge 
of the machine. 

The uncertainty revealed by the Atlantic flight has really 
proved a blessing in disguise. Had the aviators jumped into 
their machines immediately they had been assembled, and 

H 



The Dawn ot Commercial Aviation 

made the flight without incident, a totally false atmosphere 
of reliability and regularity would have been associated with 
the aeroplane. Commerce might possibly have accepted the 
aerial transatlantic highway as being definitely opened. In 
that event, if any subsequent fiasco or hiatus had eventuated, 
commerce would have turned her back upon aerial transit, and 
superhuman effort would have been required to induce her to 
regard the movement ever again with favour. Bleriot flew the 
Channel in 1909, but the mails, freight and passengers still 
go by the usual routes to and from the Continent. 

The development of railways and steamships, concerning 
the certainty of regular movement upon which there can be 
no dispute, has always been guided by one golden principle, 
"Make haste slowly." Commerce will not be stampeded into 
action, is difficult to woo, and when won must be held at all 
costs. As with the steelway and the sea so with the air. 
Once an aerial highway is opened it must be maintained at 
all hazards and irrespective of expense. Fortunately, the 
pioneers of contemporary aerial navigation recognise this 
circumstance only too well. So they too have adopted 
Festina lente as their motto. They frankly admit that years 
must necessarily pass before the way of the air becomes firmly 
established in popular favour, and readily concede that there 
is yet much to learn before any definite action can be taken 
in this direction. They are disposed to advance by easy 
stages, admit frankly that breakdowns and galling delays are 
likely to occur, but aver that each difficulty will extend its 
lesson and lead to the adoption of means whereby its 
repetition may be averted. Thousands of pounds will 
doubtless be lost in the process of evolution, many organisa- 
tions established to open the way of the air will come to grief, 
a wave of speculation will be experienced, and serious harm 

J 5 



All About Aircraft of To-Day 

will attend precipitate action. It may even be necessary to 
forget a good deal of what we have learned from the war, 
military conditions being so completely inapplicable to com- 
mercial needs, and to resume quite methodical and well 
ordered development from the stage where it was summarily 
interrupted' in 1914. Success will only be achieved upon the 
ruins of the fabric raised by the pioneers. 

To illustrate that the war was not omniscient in matters 
pertaining to aviation we need only to consider the situation 
as it affects the monoplane. In 1914 this type was generally 
accepted as being the most promising. Certainly many of 
the most brilliant achievements in aviation stood to its credit. 
But superior military knowledge overruled its claims and 
made many objections to its further development. Sub- 
sequent events tend to prove that this attitude was assumed 
from the angle of prejudice. The anti-monoplanists secured 
the upper hand, but we learned in good time the error of 
their ways. The Germans designed a fast, and, so it is 
conceded by those who were brought face to face with it, a 
first-class monoplane, that is judging from the speed and 
general behaviour point of view. With this unit they harried 
our slower-going aircraft over the North Sea. It was a bold 
bid to gain the upper hand in the air, and it led us to 
reconsider our position, the upshot of which was revived 
concern in the possibilities of the monoplane. The French 
were particularly prompt to revise their opinion of the 
monoplane and had completed arrangements for its 
development upon a wider and more intensive scale, which 
undoubtedly would have been carried into effect but for the 
intervention of the Armistice. 

For certain ranges of commercial work the monoplane 
undoubtedly is unrivalled, especially in these islands. The 

16 



. The Dawn of Commercial Aviation 

probability is that commercial flying will make but little 
headway in Great Britain. Geographical situation and the 
excellence of rival means of transit and communication will 
react against its widespread use for at least heavy and mail 
traffic. In other countries, however, such as the Continent 
of Europe, Africa, Asia, Australia and North and South 
America, there are incalculable possibilities for its expansion 
in every phase. At the same time the aeroplane is likely to 
be extensively developed in the British Isles purely for 
recreation or joy-riding as well as light commercial work. 
To the "hustler," whose daily itinerary is lunch in Man- 
chester, an afternoon cup of tea in Edinburgh, dinner in 
London with a run over to Paris to the opera in the evening 
and the week-end in New York, everything, will have to be 
subservient to speed. The monoplane, by virtue of its 
enormous pace, will appeal to him as a commercial and 
sporting aerial vehicle. On the other hand, for every 
individual who wants to scurry round this globe as if bent 
upon out-distancing his shadow there are a hundred who 
prefer to travel leisurely, in luxury and comfort, and they 
will adhere to the existing means of movement. To them 
the air will make no appeal except as an intermittent novelty, 
and even then moderate pace will appeal. 

Another apparent retrograde movement is to be recorded 
in connection with reversion to the single-engined aeroplane. 
The war was productive of magnificent types of twin-engined 
craft, but certain of our technicians have expressed dissatis- 
faction with the type. Now they are free to "gang their own 
gait " once more they have decided to rest content with the 
single-engine unit for the time being, and to pace slowly the 
path of mergence into the twin-engined aeroplane. It looks 
like putting the clock back with a vengeance, but they are 
c i 7 



All About Aircraft of To-Day 

merely acting in accordance with the dictates of prudence, 
animated By the experience of a specialised nature which they 
have collated. 

From circumstances such as these it is evident that it is 
expedient to forget much that the war has taught. Individual 
private enterprise, stimulated by competition, has ever been 
productive of more genuine and permanent progress than 
communal effort under nationalised conditions. Communal 
activity is apt to become rutted; the progress recorded under 
such conditions is somewhat artificial because it is forced and 
confined. Free development is likely to bring about the 
elimination of many of the little troubles and worries which 
at the moment are really handicapping the establishment of 
aerial navigation upon a souncl commercial basis. Moreover, 
it is likely to lead the technical mind into by-ways and 
culs-de-sac where much data of incalculable value may be 
discovered as a result of methodical investigation ; but data 
which may be overlooked when endeavour is driven under 
pressure down a wide well-defined path. It fs such individual 
effort which is likely to lead to the discovery of quite a new 
method of driving the aeroplanes through the air, or the 
evolution of a power unit of a distinctly improved type. The 
modern aero-engine, while a marvel of workmanship, bristles 
with defects. They are innate to the system. The aeroplane 
at the moment suffers from its incapacity to rise and descend 
vertically, or to hover. Until these two characteristics are 
incorporated — they are a feature of the dirigible lighter-than- 
air machine — the way of the air by the aeroplane is destined 
to remain an uncertain problem and incapable of fulfilling 
the whole of the requirements of commerce. 

Thus it will be realised that although much has been 
accomplished, finality in design is as remote now as it was 

18 






The Dawn of Commercial Aviation 

in 1914. There are still golden opportunities for brilliant 
inventive genius. Meanwhile, in order that the movement 
may not be arrested, it is necessary for us to push ahead with 
what we have. Therewith we can blaze the aerial trails of 
the earth, and thus be in readiness for a big forward boost 
the moment something revolutionary, and representing a 
distinctly forward stride of a far-reaching order, materialises. 



19 



CHAPTER II 
Why We are Able to Fly 

BARELY ten years ago the conquest of the air by dynamic 
flight constituted the sensation of the hour. Crowds, 
flushed with excitement, flocked to the aerodromes to follow 
the evolutions of the birdmen. The sight of cumbrous, albeit 
frail-looking creations of wood, linen, and slender wire, 
climbing into the air and travelling a few miles in a straight 
line or broad sweeping circles, kindled extraordinary en- 
thusiasm. No longer was the bird the autocrat of the realm 
over which he had held undisputed sway since the day when 
this world of ours was first able to support life. 

What a change has been wrought by a decade of pro- 
gress ! We no longer marvel at the amazing feats executed 
in the air. The most astonishing achievements are accepted 
as being merely matter-of-course. War, with its strenuous 
aerial training, has divested flying of its romance ; has even 
bred a spirit of indifference. The intelligence that an intrepid 
aviator has climbed to a height of 30,000 feet, or has sped 
through space at 200 miles an hour scarcely causes a flicker 
of the eyebrows. Even the subjugation of the broad, tem- 
pestuous Atlantic by the heavier-than-air machine fails to 
arouse more than fleeting interest. 'Twas ever thus. The 
ultra-wonderful of to-day becomes common-place to-morrow. 
Such is the penalty of progress. 

At this moment we do not marvel at man being able to 
20 



Why We are Able to Fly 

fly. Fortified with the knowledge we have gained, we are 
disposed to wonder why it was that man did not achieve 
his triumph many years ago. It is so simple — so delightfully 
easy. So says the airman, and, to a pronounced degree, he 
has been responsible for the quaint, disinterested spirit which 
now prevails. 

Yet, why is it we are able to fly ? Certainly Mother Nature 
has not endowed us with this capacity. But ambitious man 
did not construe the absence of wings, which gives the bird 
command of the air, into an insuperable obstacle. By dint of 
his ingenuity he has been able to remedy the remissness of 
Nature very effectively. True, for a time, he floundered hope- 
lessly in the dark. He endeavoured to follow Nature too 
slavishly in the attempt to consummate his end. He contrived 
weird artificial wings, sometimes going even to the extent of 
feathers, and sought to fly, by emulating the bird, with a 
flapping motion ; and, as is invariably the case when seek- 
ing to reproduce Nature too closely, he encountered dismal 
failure. The most perfect bird's wing might be contrived and 
it might be given the most beautiful flapping motion, but it 
would be foredoomed to failure for the simple reason that it 
would suffer from an utter lack of sensibility. It would be of 
no more actual utility than an artificial limb. It would need 
to be connected to that wonderful and intricate network which 
we know as the nervous system of the human body; to be 
linked with the brain so as to be invested with instinctive 
movement, not only of the whole, but of integral parts, even 
to a single feather. 

It was really the general belief that artificial wings would 
have to follow the form of those of the bird which postponed 
the realisation of dynamic flight for so many centuries. Even 
so recently as the closing decade of the nineteenth century 



All About Aircraft of To-Day 

this theory prevailed, because Lilienthal and his contem- 
poraries still clung to the bird's wing as the solution to the 
problem. It was this blind adherence to a fallacious reason- 
ing which retarded progress, although it is generally con- 
ceded that the experiments of these pioneers did contribute 
to our knowledge of aerodynamics, but this was rather in 
relation to the atmosphere itself than to the lines which the 
planes should assume. 

Had the pioneers been more generous in their theories 
they would have attained greater success. The fundamental 
principle upon which the modern aeroplane is based is not 
so recent as might possibly be imagined. It has been known 
for hundreds of years, while it constitutes the companion of 
every boy. I refer to the kite. This recreative apparatus 
follows a variety of designs, for the simple reason that the 
kite itself has been the object of sustained scientific interest 
and investigation through the passage of time. Although 
nominally regarded as a toy, it is capable of fulfilling far more 
serious missions. By its aid many problems of an extremely 
abstruse character have been, and still are being, probed, 
while its utilisation has contributed very materially to our 
knowledge of meteorology and the upper atmosphere. The 
relationship between the kite and the aeroplane may seem to 
be obscure, but after all is said and done the heavier-than-air 
flying machine, as we know it to-day, is no more or less than 
a mechanically-driven kite, or, as Captain Ferber, one of the 
indefatigable pioneers so aptly expressed it in another way, 
"the kite is only an anchored aeroplane." 

Why does a kite fly ? This is an obvious question. With- 
out dipping deeply into the profound and obscure science of 
aerodynamics, the reason for its soaring tendency may be 
readily explained. Briefly stated, it may be said that the kite 

22 



Why We are Able to Fly 

flies because means have been found to control and to harness 
the resistance of the air. A kite in flight is subject to the 
influence of four forces, the cumulative effect of which ensures 
its soaring tendency. These are respectively the downward 
pull of the earth, or gravity, which is due to its weight; the 
upward thrust of the air; resistance of the air; and driving or 
propelling effort. The two first-named act in the vertical 
direction ; the two last-named in the horizontal plane. 

In order to fly the kite, the latter must be inclined, and the 
more accentuated the inclination towards the horizontal, up to 
a certain and pre-determined point, the more enhanced the 
soaring tendency, because the lifting effort is directly pro- 
portional to the degree of inclination and the attendant re- 
sistance offered to the air. Obviously, the nearer the approach 
of the kite to the vertical position the greater the area exposed 
to the resistance of the air, and consequently the weaker the 
upward vertical thrust. The latter is always at right angles to 
the degree of inclination, and the kite, in its ascent, follows 
that line so long as no pull is exerted upon the string, the 
latter being paid out freely. That is why a kite always rises, 
as it were, up an inclined plane. Thus it will be seen that the 
upward vertical thrust is directly attributable to the air re- 
sistance. As the inclination of the kite approaches the 
vertical, the upward thrust approaches the horizontal and so 
diminishes; obversely, as the inclination of the kite ap- 
proaches the horizontal, the upward thrust moves towards the 
vertical and thus increases, as explained in Fig. 2. 

This may be proved very readily. If we fly a kite in a 
very light wind, a zephyr, for instance, from a fixed position, 
the angle assumed by the kite will be pronouncedly towards 
the vertical. The kite does not rise very promptly or 
markedly, although a long length of string may be paid out, 

23 



All About Aircraft of To-Day 

the kite being relatively free. Owing to the area of resistance 
exposed to the wind being large the kite is driven backwards, 
slowly climbing meanwhile owing to the upward thrust 
due to the resistance of the air, as shown in the diagram. 
It may so happen that the kite will reach the vertical position, 
in which event it will promptly make one of those disconcert- 
ing dives, for the simple reason that the weight of the kite 
having overcome the upward thrust, pulls it to the ground. 

On the other hand, if a strong wind be blowing, the 
climbing effort of the kite will become very pronounced. It 
will climb and climb until it attains a position almost directly 
overhead, although, in this instance, possibly less string has 
been paid out. But the greater altitude attained is due to the 
fact that, owing to the increased pressure of the wind, the 
kite has been induced to assume a more inclined position re- 
lative to the horizontal due to the stronger pull on the string. 

It must be understood that the pull on the string really 
acts in the same way as the motor fitted to the aeroplane. When 
the string is taut it is as if a tractor propeller were pulling the 
kite forward. This fact is proved in the instance with the 
kite flying in a light wind. Directly we begin to pull in the 
string, thus tightening it, the kite commences to rise, for the 
simple reason that the pull, otherwise the motor effort, causes 
the kite to assume a sharper angle towards the horizontal, 
decreases its resistance to the air, and at the same time in- 
creases the upward thrust. In the second instance the effect 
of the combined influence of these two forces is far more 
strikingly in evidence, much more effort being required to 
haul in the kite. All those who have flown a kite know full 
well how much more arduous it is to bring in a kite during a 
stiff wind than when there is only a gentle breeze prevailing. 

Of course, the actual upward thrust which induces the 
24 



Why We are Able to Fly 

kite to rise, is exerted in a vertical direction, and not at right 
angles to the inclination of the kite, because this effort is 
in the diametrically opposite direction to that exercised by- 
gravity, which is in a truly downward vertical direction. If 
the kite be properly balanced, these two forces will be ex- 
pended in opposite directions and along one continuous line ; 
but to do this it is essential that the line in question should 
pass through the centre of gravity of the kite. Should there 
be any error in this connection — the line representing the 
vertical upward thrust being exerted from one point, as shown 
in Fig. 3, and the downward pull due to gravity from 
another — the kite becomes unstable, and, accordingly, will 
perform those extraordinary gyrations sometimes observed, 
which the flier rectifies by adjusting the tail either by 
making it longer or shorter. If the tail be too long, the centre 
of gravity will tend toward the lower end of the kite, while, 
on the other hand, if the tail be too short it will approach the 
upper end. But in either case the ultimate result is the same. 
The kite is not in equilibrium in regard to these two forces, 
and will gyrate, owing to the struggle which naturally ensues 
between these two forces to come into line. 

But stability in the vertical direction is merely one phase 
of the issue. There must be similar equilibrium in the hori- 
zontal plane. If the string be wrongly placed, such as too 
high or too low above the line of air resistance, the kite will 
gyrate, notwithstanding the upward lift and downward gravi- 
tational pull being in line. Consequently, we generally have 
to make a good many adjustments before our kite flies in a 
well-ordered manner, successively shortening and lengthen- 
ing the tail and moving the string. Final success in the main 
is due to trial and error, the deficiences being rectified one 
by one as discovered. 

25 



All About Aircraft of To-Day 

The truly-balanced or stable kite is that in which the lines 
of the opposing forces meet or intersect at the centre of 
gravity. When this degree of perfection has been achieved, 
the kite will be found to be in absolute equilibrium, and will 
soar in the most perfect manner. It is immaterial what design 
of kite be employed, whether it be the familiar, semicircular 
topped and sharply pointed, plane surface, the box kite, or 
the grotesque and wonderful creations which have been asso- 
ciated for so many centuries with the Chinese — who, by the 
way, are the most accomplished and most scientifically skilled 
kite-fliers in the world, some of the kites being sixty feet 
or more in length, and, when aloft, representing a fantastic 
dragon or some other allegorical creature in flight. 

The fundamental principles governing the kite must be 
observed in the aeroplane, although there are many modifi- 
cations in detail to adapt this device to the conditions. Thus, 
the planes or wings are so disposed as to present an inclined 
plane to the air when the body or fuselage is truly horizontal. 
The normal angle varies, but it is about eight degrees. More- 
over, the plane is given a humped shape in section, the hump 
being brought forward near the cutting or front edge of the 
wing. In this manner the wing is given a concave surface, 
the concavity being towards the earth. It was introduced 
originally because it was found to conform with Nature's 
design as exemplified in the bird's wing, while subsequent 
technical investigation and computation confirmed the 
superiority of this shape. Consequently, if one were to cut 
a slice from the end of a wing of the modern aeroplane, one 
would find its outline to coincide roughly with that shown 
in the diagram Fig. 4. 

The similarity between the kite and the aeroplane in 
regard to fundamental principle of operation may be carried 

26 



All About Aircraft of To-Day 

farther. The prevailing practice is to set the propeller in 
front of the machine. By its revolution the propeller draws 
the aeroplane through the air in precisely the same way as 
the pull of the string upon the kite causes the latter to rise. 
This may be more convincingly illustrated by running with 
the kite in flight. The reason why the kite exerts a more 
pronounced tendency to rise when the flier runs is because 
thereby he exerts a more powerful pull upon the string, 
which, in turn, increases the resistance of the air upon the 
kite's surface, thus augmenting the upward thrust. It is the 
same with the aeroplane. The faster the propeller is driven, 
and the closer the number of revolutions per minute ap- 
proaches the pre-determined limit, the more enhanced the 
lifting effort. The propeller cannot be driven at an excessive 
speed for the simple reason that, having displaced the air, it 
would be rotating in a partial vacuum, and so would fail 
to secure that requisite "bite" upon the medium of resistance 
which it is essential should be encountered to acquire the 
requisite lifting tendency. 

But the kite is anchored. Its altitude, in the main, is 
governed by the length of string paid_out. If the conditions 
be favourable for holding the string from a fixed point, the 
kite will continue to rise until the weight of the string itself 
commences to be felt, although ascent will continue all the 
time the upward thrust is able to overcome the downward pull 
of gravity due to the weight of the kite and its string. The 
aeroplane is a free kite, and so means have to be incorporated 
to prevent the machine from steadily rising when a level 
course is desired. This is secured by the introduction of what 
is called the empennage. This is the unit attached to the rear 
end of the body of the artificial bird, and acts in the same 
capacity as the tail of the denizen of the air. The empennage 

28 



Why We are Able to Fly 

is a somewhat comprehensive term, inasmuch as it includes 
the whole of the stern gear comprising the rudder, fixed tail- 
plane, and the elevator. This last-named really controls the 
rising tendency of the aeroplane. It is a flap or hinged sur- 
face, the edges of which are parallel with the wings of the 
machine, and it can be moved up or down according as to 
whether it is desired to descend or to ascend. 

If the flap be raised the increased resistance offered to the 
air above the machine causes a depressing action to be 
exerted upon the tail, and a corresponding degree of elevation 
to the nose of the machine, so that the aeroplane is able to 
climb (Fig. 5). On the other hand, if the elevator be 
depressed, resistance to the air is offered beneath the machine, 
and so the tail is forced upwards, causing the nose to be 
depressed. A downward course is instantly followed (Fig. 6). 
In the circumstances, therefore, if the elevator be set to the 
required angle the natural upward thrust imparted to the 
machine by the increased rotation of the propeller can be 
nullified and a perfect horizontal course maintained. 

I have mentioned that the ideally balanced kite is one in 
which the opposing forces, both vertically and horizontally, 
are exerted along continuous lines. The same applies to the 
aeroplane. Assuming the normal course of the aeroplane to 
be perfectly horizontal, these two lines should pass through 
the centre of gravity (Fig. 7). If this be fulfilled, perfect 
equilibrium will be imparted to the machine. On the other 
hand, should either be thrown out of alignment the machine 
becomes unstable and dangerous, because the error is certain 
to impart a spinning tendency to the aeroplane, as shown in 
Fig. 8. 

But perfect equilibrium is only secured in the one position 
— namely, when the aeroplane is travelling in the horizontal 

29 



All About Aircraft of To-Day 

direction. The centre of thrust, or pressure — that is, the 
point where the lifting effort is exerted — is constantly moving. 
In the actual aeroplane, the centre of pressure is manifested 
along a line extending from wing-tip to wing-tip, and this line 
approaches the front or cutting edge of the wing, that is in 
advance of the centre of gravity, as the inclination of the 
wings approaches the horizontal, and moves back as the aero- 
plane's inclination approaches the vertical. 

Of course, both these movements may be pushed to an 
excessive degree. If the nose be depressed below the hori- 
zontal, the centre of pressure becomes changed from the 
under to the upper side of the wings, and the machine im- 
mediately commences to fall vertically like a stone, or to 
glide downwards. On the other hand, if reared too vertically, 
the machine will be turned over on its back. It is by virtue 
of these excessive motions under control, coupled with high 
engine speed, which enables such startling aerial manoeuvres, 
or stunts, as "looping the loop," rolling, spinning, and 
spiralling, to be conducted in safety. 

There is one feature identified with flight which distin- 
guishes it from every other form of locomotion, with the 
exception of submarine travel. Movement is possible in the 
three dimensions, whereas in all other forms it is either in 
the one or two dimensions. In other words, the airman is able 
to move longitudinally, transversely, and vertically. In walk- 
ing, a man or animal has command of the two dimensions — 
length and breadth only. On the other hand, the railway 
locomotive, or any other system of motion confined to a track, 
can only move in the one dimension. Birds and fishes have 
control over movement in the three dimensions for the simple 
reason that they are wholly immersed in the medium in which 
they exist. This is why the submarine may be compared 

30 



Why We are Able to Fly 

with the flying-machine, because both have command over 
movement forwards, sideways, and up and down. Conse- 
quently, in view of this factor, the aeroplane must be invested 
with equilibrium, not only longitudinally, but transversely, 
and must be equipped with the means of maintaining this 
equilibrium under varying conditions. 

Command of the machine in the transverse plane is assured 
by means of what are known as ailerons. These are hinged 
flaps, similar in design to those of the elevator, and are let into 
the outermost rear corners of the wings. Their edges are 
parallel with the edges of the wings, while the rear edge of 
the aileron is flush with the rear edge of the support and 
plane surface. When set normally, they form a continuation 
and part of the wing. In the case of a biplane the ailerons 
on each plane are connected; i.e. the aileron of the upper 
wing is coupled to its fellow on the wing beneath, so that the 
two act in concert and to the same degree. The wires whereby 
their movement is effected are carried to the control-lever or 
"joy-stick," and their action is broadly similar to that of the 
elevator, because they are introduced to fulfil a similar pur- 
pose — steering in the lateral plane. But each pair moves in 
opposition to its fellow. We have all observed how a racing 
cyclist speeding round a circular track inclines his body 
towards the centre of the circle which the track describes, 
while to assure stability we know that the track is banked, so 
that the machine and rider shall be perpendicular to the 
surface of the track. 

A similar effect takes place in the air. In turning to the 
left the machine inclines toward the centre of the circle which 
it is describing. But in describing the turn, we have an 
effect comparable with that experienced upon the roundabout. 
The tip of the outer or right wing has to travel farther than 

3* 



All About Aircraft of To-Day 

the tip of the inner or left wing. Consequently, stability must 
be maintained; in other words, greater sustentation must be 
imparted to the tip of the left or inner wing. If this were not 
so the machine would either slip sideways along the line of 
inclination of the machine, or it might possibly turn right 
over. The ailerons, however, extend just the additional 
support which is desired, and by their peculiar movement 
exercise a correcting effort which is sufficient to counteract 
slipping or capsizing. 

In making the turn to the left, the aviator moves his "joy- 
stick " to the left. In so doing he slightly elevates the ailerons 
on the extreme tips of the right wings, and at the same time 
the ailerons on the extreme tips of the left wings are corre- 
spondingly depressed. The aileron surfaces on the right wing 
tips, by projecting upwards, strike the air, and the resistance 
thus encountered from above tends to force the elevated part 
of the machine in a downward direction. On the other hand, 
the aileron surfaces projecting downwards from the extreme 
tips of the left wings meet the pressure of the air which is 
being exerted upwards, and which tends to push that wing 
upwards. This counterbalancing effort is maintained the 
whole time the machine is turning, and has the effect of 
restoring the machine to the even keel the moment the course 
is straightened, when the ailerons are returned to their normal 
position. In turning to the right, the action and tendency 
are reversed, the upward thrust of the air bearing upon the 
inner right wing ailerons which are depressed, and down- 
wards upon the left wing ailerons which are turned upwards. 

Longitudinal stability is maintained in a broadly similar 
manner, because the elevator planes are really ailerons, 
though acting in the vertical plane. They are likewise con- 
nected to the control-lever or "joy-stick." To climb, the 

32 



Why We are Able to Fly 

aviator pulls the control-lever backwards, and to descend, 
pushes it forward, with the effect previously explained. 

All the movements of the "joy-stick" are natural. The 
aviator moves the lever in the direction in which he desires 
to go — namely, backwards when he wishes to rise, and for- 
ward when he wishes to descend. To turn to the left he 
swings his lever to the left, and vice versa. It will be seen 
that the control of the ailerons and the elevator is carried 
to one common lever, which is essential, because the move- 
ments are interdependent, and both may need to be made 
simultaneously; as, for instance, when climbing and making 
a turn at the same time. One single control for the main- 
tenance of stability in the two directions, longitudinally and 
laterally, is infinitely superior to an individual control for 
each movement in the two planes, because it can be conducted 
by one hand and instinctively. This arrangement has neces- 
sitated a special form of mounting for the "joy-stick" — upon 
the ball and socket principle — giving command over a fairly 
wide circle, and allowing movement in any direction within 
that circle. In some of the recent machines this simple method 
has undergone a modification. The control-lever is given 
movement only in a fore and aft direction for the manipu- 
lation of the elevator. A wheel is vertically mounted upon 
the upper end of this column, as if the wheel upon the pillar 
of a motor-car were folded over, rotation of which, in the 
right or left direction, moves the ailerons. 

To maintain the course of the machine in the desired line 
of flight there is a rudder. This is another plane surface or 
aileron, set vertically and upon the longitudinal axis of the 
machine. Two wires extend from the rudder to be con- 
nected to the extremities of a transverse, centrally-pivoted 
bar in the pilot's cock-pit. This bar is controlled by the feet, 
D 33 



All About Aircraft of To-Day 

and has an oscillating motion about its axis. When the 
right foot is pushed forward, moving the rudder bar in that 
direction, the stern plane is turned so as to offer increased 
resistance to the air, which, pressing upon the surface, pushes 
the tail of the machine round, swinging the nose of the 
machine round in the opposite direction, i.e. to the left. 
When the left foot is pushed forward upon the rudder bar the 
machine, of course, wears to the right. 

Yet, although the fundamental principles concerning the 
flight of a kite have long been known, dynamic flight failed 
to make any progress until a few years ago. Although many 
brilliant minds attacked the issue, they achieved nothing but 
failure. Strive how they might they could not replace the 
string of the kite by an efficient light engine. Considerable 
effort and ingenuity were expended, but to no avail. In the 
struggle between weight and power, weight maintained the 
upper hand. Power might be increased, but the augmenta- 
tion of weight to secure that power was always dispropor- 
tionate to the results attained. It was not until this state of 
affairs could be reversed, power gaining the ascendancy over 
weight, that progress could be recorded. It was the high- 
speed internal combustion engine, giving high power for 
nominal weight, which instantly lifted dynamic flight from 
the dreamland in which it had been imprisoned for centuries 
to the world of practical and commercial application. The 
struggle still prevails, but it is less harassing than it was in 
the days when steam alone appeared to be the only possible 
solution of the problem. 

During the past few years the progress recorded in regard 
to the application of power to the aeroplane has been some- 
what remarkable, as I have recorded in another chapter, and 
ingenuity has found expression in many forms. But this 

34 



Why We are Able to Fly 

in turn gave rise to other problems. The single unit had 
been carried to an extreme degree, and possibly is approach- 
ing its limit, because power means weight, even to-day, and 
weight involves increase in the dimensions of the planes or 
carrying surfaces to preserve the equilibrium of the funda- 
mental forces involved. It is for this reason that we have 
seen planes growing in size; but there are limits in this 
direction, under present conditions. The larger the plane 
the more difficult is its control ; so progress in the one direc- 
tion will necessitate the incorporation of new ideas in the 
other, which are certain to introduce perplexing factors, the 
significance of which, as yet, cannot be anticipated. 

When one comes to consider the navigation of the lighter- 
than-air flying machine, vastly different conditions arise, 
although, so far as the fundamental requirements are con- 
cerned, there is very little difference. The airship, like the 
aeroplane, is subject to the combined force of lift and gravi- 
tational pull, operating in opposition in the vertical plane, 
and to the combined forces of air resistance and propelling 
effort in the horizontal plane. So far as the two first-named 
are concerned, the problem is solved, but in a totally different 
manner. Ascensional or lifting effort is imparted to the vessel 
by recourse to an agent which is lighter than air, stored in 
an envelope or bag. 

There are several such mediums, such as ammonia-gas, 
carbon-monoxide, coal-gas, helium, hot-air, hydrogen, and 
water-gas. Ammonia-gas is out of the question because it 
readily attacks the fabric which is at present employed to 
form the envelope. Carbon-monoxide could be employed, 
but any leakage would spell instant death to any living 
being in the vicinity, because it is extremely poisonous. 
Helium would be excellent for the purpose, for the reason 

35 



All About Aircraft of To-Day 

that, while somewhat heavier than hydrogen, it is safe to use; 
but it suffers under the disability of being expensive, and 
it has only about one-half the lifting capacity of hydrogen. 
During the middle of 1919, however, means have been 
perfected to obtain this gas at a relatively trivial cost. Hot- 
air is ruled out of commercial application because it cannot 
be maintained at the requisite temperature during the period 
of the flight. 

Accordingly, the gases available for this purpose be- 
come narrowed down to hydrogen, coal-gas, and water-gas. 
Hydrogen is the well-known element, of a highly inflam- 
mable character, which, to-day, can be produced very 
cheaply. Coal-gas is the familiar product resulting from 
the distillation of coal, and which is composed essentially 
of hydrogen and methane gases, but heavily adulterated 
with various impurities, such as sulphur, which, however, 
are capable of complete removal. 

Water-gas, or as it is more familiarly called, producer-gas, 
is obtained from the decomposition of steam by passing 
it over glowing charcoal, the gaseous product thus secured 
being composed mainly of hydrogen and carbon-monoxide. 
If produced under high temperature conditions, the pro- 
portion of these two gases will aggregate about 90 per cent. 
of the whole, the balance of 10 per cent, being represented by 
various other deleterious gases, including carbonic acid gas. 

When the Montgolfier Brothers demonstrated the pos- 
sibility of lifting an inflated spherical, or rather pear- 
shaped, envelope into the air by the aid of hot-air, brilliant 
minds at once conceived the idea of imparting dirigibility 
to the craft. When Green introduced coal-gas as the lift- 
ing agent, demonstrating its superiority to hot-air for the 
purpose, this line of investigation was very pronouncedly 

36 






Why We are Able to Fly 

stimulated. But these pioneers speedily discovered the im- 
practicability of achieving their end. They found it abso- 
lutely impossible to endow the vessel with the qualities 
of dirigibility ; they only encountered threatened disaster 
as the reward for their pains and ingenuity. The moment 
they extended a device, such as a sail or plane, to en- 
deavour to deflect the balloon from its course, which was 
the direction in which the wind was blowing, the vessel 
commenced to heel over in the direction of its line of flight. 

The reason for this action is perfectly obvious. It is 
impossible to secure dirigibility unless the vessel be in- 
vested with a speed of its own, or independent speed, as it 
is called. A rowing-boat will prove this fact very con- 
vincingly. If the boat is merely being carried along by the 
tide or current, the most frantic movement of the rudder will 
fail to swing it to the right or to the left. But when that 
boat is given an independent speed, either by the aid of a 
motor or hand-rowing, it will immediately answer any 
movement because it now has steering way, as it is called. 

It was also obvious that the general outline of the aerial 
vessel depending upon the ascensional effort exerted by 
gas for its lift, would need to undergo intimate study. In 
this instance the mass, as represented by the plane vertical 
section of the balloon, is considerable, while, moreover, 
there was every indication that the pressure exerted by the 
air would crush the front of the vessel in the manner of a 
concertina. Gas differs from a liquid in that it may be 
compressed. This difficulty, in the main, was overcome by 
giving the airship a fish-shaped form, which, for a long 
time, was maintained to be imperative. The German ex- 
perimenter, Count von Zeppelin, disputed this contention, 
because he adopted the cylindrical shape, and this is 

37 



All About Aircraft of To-Day 

broadly what has been adopted in the aerial giants built 
for the British Admiralty. Although Zeppelin was criticised, 
and somewhat ridiculed for adopting the cylindrical as 
distinct from the fish-shaped body embraced by Renard, 
Lebaudy, Clement-Bayard, and others, subsequent events 
have somewhat vindicated the German experimenter's 
theories. 

The conditions for the maintenance of equilibrium 
which it is necessary to fulfil in the airship are broadly 
similar to those essential to the perfectly stable aeroplane. 
When the vessel is floating freely, or normally, in the air, 
its longitudinal axis, that is to say the centre line of the 
body from nose to stern, should be perfectly horizontal. 
If this end be fulfilled, then the vessel must be in a con- 
dition of perfect equilibrium, because the two forces which 
ensure the maintenance of this position — the upward ver- 
tical thrust, or lifting effort, and the downward pull due to 
its weight or gravity — are passing through the centre of 
gravity. If this continuity of the line of the opposing forces 
be broken, the vessel must tilt in the longitudinal direction, 
the inclination continuing until the two opposing forces 
come into line. What is more vital is that this 
equilibrium must be maintained during forward travel, 
otherwise the vessel is likely to indulge in disconcerting 
pitching. It must only be subject to intentional disturb- 
ance through the manipulation of the elevating plane or 
aileron attached to the tail, according as to whether the 
helmsman wishes to ascend or descend. 

In the "dead" balloon which, having no independent 
speed, is merely the sport of the air, variation in the vertical 
plane, or change of altitude, is effected either by releasing 
the gas or by discarding ballast. It will be seen that by 

38 



Why We are Able to Fly 

releasing the gas the ascensional effort suffers certain diminu- 
tion, and the downward gravitational pull due to weight 
being in excess of the upward thrust, the balloon must fall, 
continuing to do so until it reaches the altitude at which 
the two forces once more become equal. Similarly, when 
ballast is discarded, extra effort is given to the lift by re- 
duction of weight, inducing the balloon to rise until it 
reaches the level where equilibrium once more becomes 
adjusted. But such methods would be impracticable with 
the commercial navigable airship, although the practice 
would be followed in case of emergency, but only as a last 
resort. Variation in altitude is effected mainly by manipu- 
lation of the elevator. If this be inclined, the increased 
resistance offered to the air serves to depress the stern and 
to lift the bow, thereby assuring ascent, while descent is 
secured by depressing the vertical rudder in the opposite 
direction, which forces the stern upward and dips the nose a 
corresponding degree. 

Experience has proved that the most satisfactory airship, 
at all events for what might be termed the big cargo carriers — 
the freighters of the air — is what is known as the rigid type. 
This is a wonderfully impressive creation, as may be gathered 
from perusal of a subsequent chapter. It is necessary to pro- 
vide the craft, as in its counterpart upon the sea, with a stiff 
and substantial backbone or keel, while the gas is carried in a 
number of inner but subsidiary balloons. But the adoption 
of the rigid form of construction has served to elucidate one 
searching problem— the disposition of the propelling force as 
represented by the propellers. In the case of dirigibles, where 
the car is supported by a flexible triangular suspension 
system, being slung some distance below the envelope, the 
setting of the driving effort to overcome the sum of the re- 

30 



All About Aircraft of To-Day 

sistances of the air exerted upon the inflated envelope and car 
with its rigging occasioned no little difficulty. Theoretically 
the position for the propeller is at a point between the car and 
the longitudinal axis of the envelope, but this has proved to be 
impracticable. Consequently the engines were mounted in 
the car, the propeller being placed at the bow, and the rotation 
of which drew the airship forward. But this arrangement 
only permitted the installation of a single screw, as in the 
case of our "Blimps." 

As the dimensions of the vessels increased, it became 
necessary to mount additional motors and propellers to 
obtain the high driving effort necessary to force the 
mass through the air. So the tractor system was aban- 
doned in favour of the pusher method, in which the 
propeller is mounted at the rear of the car, the rudder, 
which had heretofore been set at the stern of the sus- 
pended car, being transferred to the envelope. This ar- 
rangement enabled two sets of motors and propellers to be 
installed, side by side, after the manner practised with a twin- 
screw steamship. When it was found necessary to utilise still 
greater power to secure higher speeds for the bigger and 
heavier rigid types, it was found possible to mount several 
engines and their propellers in line. Thus the R34, of 
approximately 2,000,000 cubic feet, with a lifting capacity of 
sixty tons, and a total weight ready for the air of twenty-six 
and a half tons, is fitted with five Sunbeam engines, each 
developing 275 h.p., the fore and aft disposed upon the central 
line, while the two central propellers are set side by side. 

I have stated that the British airship follows the lines of 
the German Zeppelin. This is scarcely correct. The German 
craft are truly cylindrical from end to end, with a conical- 
shaped prow and stern to obtain the stream-line effect. The 

40 



Why We are Able to Fly 

lines of the latest British ship are more symmetrical and fish- 
form, to reduce the resistance to the air to a far greater degree 
than is possible with the true Zeppelin form. The nose has a 
-more attenuated and graceful curve, while the stern has 
a more pronounced and longer taper. It really represents a 
compromise between the truly cylindrical Zeppelin design and 
the fish-form favoured by the French. Marine practice, in 
its application to the air and steam-line effect, has been fol- 
lowed so far as the conditions would permit. The same 
characteristic applies to our aeroplanes, which are distinctly 
British in design, the stream-line effect which assures the mini- 
mum of resistance to the air being carried to a fine degree. 
Incidentally, the comparison between 1909 and 19 19, a 
period of ten years, in the matter of airship design, affords 
interesting reading. The Deutschland, the crack Zeppelin of 
1909, was approximately 500 feet in length, of 700,000 cubic 
feet capacity, and was fitted with three motors developing 
in all 330 horse-power, giving a maximum speed of about 
thirty-five miles per hour. The British giant of 1919, 
which negotiated the Atlantic, is 643 feet in length, is 
inflated with nearly 2,000,000 cubic feet of gas, is fitted 
with motors having a total output of 1,375 horse-power, 
and has a maximum speed of forty-seven knots — about fifty- 
three miles — per hour, with full load of sixty tons at normal 
maximum engine speed. When one bears in mind 
that five years previously Britain did not possess a single 
rigid airship, it will be recognised that progress in the design 
and construction of the aerial liners by this country has, in- 
deed, been extraordinarily, rapid, and the end is not yet in 
sight. Far bigger, heavier, and more powerful airships have 
been, and still are being, planned, of which further details 
are given elsewhere. 

41 



CHAPTER III 

The Man, the Machine, and the Air. 

TN our enthusiastic appreciation of the efforts of our aero- 
-"- plane and airship designers, and the prowess of our air- 
men we are disposed to talk confidently about the conquest of 
the air. But has the air really been mastered? It is a subtle 
force, and capable of playing many strange and unexpected 
tricks. It is these vagaries which are liable to upset the most 
careful of our calculations and to confuse our conceptions and 
knowledge. The situation was very neatly expressed upon 
the occasion of the transatlantic voyage to New York and 
back by airship in the epigram that, via the air, "Britain is 
farther from America than America is distant from Britain." 
This sounds paradoxical ; but it serves to emphasise the fact 
that the wind still holds the whip-hand. For instance, while, 
generally speaking, it may be said to favour flying eastward 
across the Atlantic, it is certainly antagonistic to similar 
efforts in the westward direction. If further evidence of this 
circumstance be required, it is forthcoming in the efforts 
made to subjugate the Atlantic by aeroplane. The heavier- 
than-air machines, which set out to achieve the victory, and 
incidentally to win a tempting financial reward, were hung 
up in Newfoundland owing to absence of "favourable 
weather." Of the six attempts made to accomplish the 
apparently impossible, four recorded failure. So far as 
flying from Britain to the other side is concerned, but little 

4 2 



The Man, the Machine, and the Air 

encouragement has been given. Only one aeroplane attempt 
has been made, and that ended in disaster before the first 
lap of the journey had been covered. 

The air is still supreme. Weather beats the man. We 
have a very long row to hoe before we shall be able to fly 
where and when we will. Of the two systems competing 
for recognition as a commercial force of established value, 
the airship, at present, undoubtedly holds the advantage, and 
is the more promising vehicle for aerial locomotion. The 
aeroplane appears to have been brought to a point beyond 
which it seems impossible to advance. Under war conditions 
it undoubtedly held an overwhelming advantage; but in 
so far as commerce is concerned its future appears to be 
somewhat doubtful. 

The stage has been reached where the aeroplane can 
only secure recognition by establishing its revenue-earning 
capacity. It must be developed very extensively before it 
can hope to compete with its lighter-than-air rival as a carrier 
either of passengers or freight. As at present designed, it 
cannot convey such a paying load. Recent mathematical de- 
ductions, of an interesting character, which have been made, 
show that an aeroplane, capable of competing with the con- 
temporary dirigible in regard to earning capacity would 
need to have a tip-to-tip wing span exceeding 600 feet. In 
other words, the span of the wings of the aeroplane would 
have to be equal to the length of the competitive dirigible. 
One has only to reflect a little to grasp what enormous engine 
power would be required to drive such a huge dynamic 
flying machine through the air. This serves to bring home 
the nature of the contest existing between speed and weight — 
the alpha and omega of aeroplane design. Even our aero- 
motor designers appear to be more impressed with the future 

43 



All About Aircraft of To-Day 

for the dirigible. They have forged ahead of the aeroplane 
in the construction of powerful units of power— units which 
are far too large and heavy for the contemporary aeroplane, 
but which are eminently adapted to the propulsion of the 
dirigible. 

The difference between the two systems of aerial locomo- 
tion is readily explicable. As the dimensions of the aero- 
plane are increased, its efficiency falls. On the other hand, 
as the dimensions of the airship are increased, its efficiency 
rises. Increase in the dimensions of the airship augments 
lifting effort by the cube, but resistance to the air only by 
the square. For instance, we will suppose we have an air- 
ship measuring 1,000 feet in length by ioo feet wide and ioo 
feet high, and propose to double these dimensions. In this 
way we shall get an airship 2,000 feet long by 200 feet wide 
and 200 feet high. But in doubling all the dimensions we 
do not double the capacity or lifting effort, but increase it by 
the cube, volume being equal to length multiplied by width 
multiplied by height. The volume of our first airship was 
10,000,000 cubic feet (1,000x100x100), while that of the 
second airship will be 80,000,000 cubic feet (2,000x200x200). 
Consequently, although we only actually increase the dimen- 
sions twofold, we increase the volume or lifting capacity 
eight times, 8 being the cube of 2. But we do not increase 
the resistance offered to the air eight times. The area ex- 
posed to the air in the direction of flight is merely the width 
multiplied by the height. This, with our first airship, is 
10,000 square feet (100 x 100). In the second airship it is 
40,000 square feet (200x200), so that resistance is only in- 
creased by the square, 4 being the square of 2. 

Accordingly, the general lines of the shape of the air- 
ship having been scientifically determined and more or less 

44 



The Man, the Machine, and the Air 

settled, lifting effort must always be in the ascendancy 
and proportionate to any increase in the dimensions of the 
vessel. It is impossible to deprive the airship of this advan- 
tage. With the aeroplane a diametrically different result is 
attained. 

In the light of this knowledge it is only natural to antici- 
pate a rapid development of the dirigible, particularly for 
long distance and trans-oceanic traffic. But high speed such 
as we have become accustomed to identify with the aeroplane 
will not be attempted. Speed demands power and power 
costs money. Therefore, we may rest assured that the air- 
ship designer, in his desire to secure the utmost revenue 
from the conveyance of passengers and freight, will 
always determine the motive power issue strictly from the 
economical point of view. He will seek to give that speed 
capable of showing the most satisfactory return. 

The term speed in its application to aerial craft is some- 
what misleading. When we, living on the ground, talk of 
speed, we estimate this factor in relation to the ground; but 
to travel in the air the ground in relation to speed does not 
exist. Aloft, speed means the difference between that of the 
wind itself and that of the flying machine due to the effort 
of its engines, and is a variable factor according to the 
direction in which the vessel is travelling. For instance, if 
an airship can travel at 50 knots, but encounters a wind 
blowing directly against it — a head wind — at 25 knots, the 
actual speed of the vessel is not 50 knots, but only 25 knots, 
because the velocity of the adverse wind, 25 knots, must be 
deducted. If the engines of the airship were stopped, the 
vessel, now virtually a balloon, would be caught by the wind 
and be carried along with it ; that is, backwards, at 25 knots 
the speed of the wind. On the other hand, if the wind 

45 



All About Aircraft of To-Day 

be blowing directly astern, and in the same direction as that 
in which the airship is travelling — what is called a following 
or favourable wind — the speed would be 75 knots, being the 
speed of the ship plus that of the wind (50 + 25 knots). 

I have drawn attention to this influence of the wind upon 
movement in the air in connection with the aeroplane; but 
it is a factor which must be regarded in its true light, espe- 
cially in connection with airships, inasmuch as it is apt to 
provoke many misunderstandings. The real speed of any 
flying machine is what it is able to attain by virtue of its 
propelling machinery if moving steadily in absolutely still 
air — a dead calm— which is seldom encountered. This speed, 
whatever it may be, is known as the independent speed of the 
flying machine, and is subject to deduction or addition, 
according to the direction in which the wind is travelling 
and the effect it is exercising upon the forward movement of 
the craft. It is a variation of the old problem of the fly in 
the railway carriage flying at eight miles an hour, in the 
same direction as the express train travelling at sixty miles 
an hour, with which we are familiar, and which is, or was, 
a favourite "trap" in the examination paper. 

The wind is estimated according to what is known as the 
Beaufort scale, wherein the wind is divided into twelve broad 
classifications, each of which is given a relative value and 
distinctive number. 

According to this scale, if an airship, supposing its prow 
were a square plane measuring 100 by 100 feet, were to 
encounter wind force "No. 4," coinciding with a moderate 
breeze, blowing directly head on, it would be called upon 
to battle against an adverse force of 15 miles per hour, 
while the total pressure against which it would be pitted, 
namely 0.67 lb. per square foot of its surface, would amount 

46 



The Man, the Machine, and the Air 

THE BEAUFORT SCALE OF WIND FORCE. 



Beaufort General 

No. Description. 

o Calm 

i Light air 



2 Slight 
breeze 



Gentle 



4 


Moderate 
breeze 


5 


Fresh 
breeze 


6 


Strong 


7 


High 

wind 



Gale 



9 


Strong 
gale 


IO 


Whole 




gale 


II 


Storm 


12 


Hurri- 




cane 



Characteristics. 

Smoke rises vertically 

Direction of wind 
shown by smoke drift, 
but not by vanes 

Wind felt on face ; 
leaves rustle ; ordin- 
ary vanes moved by 
wind 

Leaves and small twigs 
in constant motion ; 
wind extends light 
flag 

Raises dust and loose 
paper ; moves small 
branches .... 

Small trees in leaf be- 
gin to sway ; wave- 
lets form on inland 
waters 

Large branches in mo- 
tion ; whistling heard 
in telegraph wires . . 

Whole trees in motion ; 
inconvenience in 
walking against wind 

Breaks twigs of trees 
and generally impedes 
progress .... 

Slight structural dam- 
age occurs, chimney- 
pots and slates re- 
moved 

Seldom experienced in- 
land ; trees uprooted ; 
considerable structur- 
al damage , , , . 

Very rarely experi- 
enced ; accompanied 
by widespread dam- 
age 



47 



Wind Force 

lb. per so. 

jt. Pressure 

on Normal 

Plane. 



•08 



•28 



•67 



I '31 



2'3 



3-6 



5-4 



77 



io-5 



Miles Feet 

per Hour, per Second. 



35 



15 



50 



59 



8-5 



23 

32 

4i'5 

51-5 

62 5 

74'5 
87 



14 

Above 


68 
Above 


102 

Above 


17 


75 


no 



All About Aircraft of To-Day 

to 6,700 pounds ( 100 x ioox .67), or approximately 3- tons. But 
if this adverse wind were No. 10, which, by the way, is 
sometimes experienced upon the Atlantic, especially at cer- 
tain times of the year, the airship would be called upon to 
struggle against a wind having a velocity of 59 miles an 
hour, while the pressure exerted upon its vertical plane 
superficies would be no less than 105,000 lb. (100 x 100x10.5 
lb.), or nearly 47 tons. 

The air is capable of upsetting calculations in another 
direction. I have narrated in detail something concerning 
the wonderful development that has been made in regard to 
the aeromotor, and the high standard of perfection coupled 
with reliability, durability, and endurance to which it has 
been brought. Possibly, to the uninitiated, the actual work 
of designing the high-speed explosion engine for aerial duty 
may not appear to be a very distinctive task, seeing that it 
has been directly evolved from the motor-car. Adaptation 
may even be regarded by some as being confined to the 
paring down of weights, and the discovery of other and 
lighter metals to take the place of those generally utilised. 
As a matter of fact the designing of the aeromotor bristles 
with peculiar complexities — problems which are not encoun- 
tered in any other field of application. For instance, the 
motor-car designer, in carrying out his ideas, is not harassed 
by considerations of air density, or pressure, upon the per- 
formance of his engine. The chances are that he never gives 
a thought to this issue, merely because it does not arise, 
the air-pressure upon the ground being constant, or at all 
events so slight in variation as to be negligible. Even if 
the car be called upon to traverse an Alpine pass, air density 
may safely be ignored so far as the motor itself is concerned, 
although it may involve adjustment of the carburetter. But 

48 



The Man, the Machine, and the Air 

for air duty, the altitude at which the engine is designed 
to work plays a very conspicuous part; it affects design to 
a very remarkable degree. An aeromotor develops 1,000 
horse-power in the aerodrome upon the seashore. But lift 
that engine to an altitude of 10,000 feet, and set it going 
once more. It does not develop a 1,000 horse-power now; 
the output has dropped to 730 horse-power. By lifting the 
engine 10,000 feet, all other factors remaining constant, 270 
horse-power has disappeared. Lift the aeromotor a further 
10,000 feet to 20,000 feet altitude, and we notice that the 
power delivered depreciates still more. It does not exceed 
535 horse-power at this level ; it has lost a further 195 horse' 
power. That is to say, at an altitude of 20,000 feet an aero- 
motor will only give about one-half of the power that it will 
deliver at sea-level. 

Such is the trick which density of the air plays upon the 
aeromotor, and it was one with which the designer had to 
wrestle very seriously in designing engines for war-service. 
Fighting conditions and anti-aircraft defensive measures 
forced the fighting bird-men to altitudes ranging from 15,000 
to 20,000 feet. It involved considerable care and study upon 
the part of the designer to ensure a machine which was 
highly efficient at 1,000 feet to show an equal efficiency at 
the extremely high levels. Accordingly, during the latter 
months of the war, an engine, and for that matter the aero- 
plane itself, was not judged according to its capabilities at 
1,000 feet or near the ground, but for its performance at 
10,000 feet. This was regarded virtually as the unit. 

Of course, it will be argued that under commercial con- 
ditions the aeroplane will never be forced to such altitudes 
as were common to military duty, and that the density of 
the air will never be able to exercise such an adverse 
e 49 



All About Aircraft of To-Day 

influence. But such reasoning is dangerous and fallacious. 
An aeroplane is making a trans-oceanic passage, or, perhaps, 
trans-continental journey, involving negotiation of lofty 
mountain ranges. A dense fog persistently prevails, and the 
aviator loses all sense of direction. He desires to ascertain 
his position, and he can only do so by climbing and climbing 
until he is able to secure a position above the fog, or a hole 
in the blanket affording him a glimpse of the sun to take 
his bearings and to correct his course. But in so doing he 
may have to climb to 12,000 feet. Unless his engine has been 
designed along the correct lines the climb is likely to prove 
disastrous; possibly it may prove to be impracticable. It 
will be remembered that in his flight across the Atlantic, Sir 
John Alcock was compelled to rise to 11,000 feet, at which 
level his two 350 horse-power motors, presuming the rated 
power was given at ground level, fell to about 256 horse- 
power each, a net loss on the two engines of 188 horse-power. 
Crossing lofty mountain ranges, such as the Cordilleras in 
South America, the Rockies in the United States and 
Canada, and the Alps in Europe is attended by similar loss 
of power. In the course of his flight across the Andes, in 
the 1 10 horse-power Bristol monoplane, during which the 
Chilean aviator, Lieut. Cortinez, had reached 20,000 feet, 
the engine thus only gave about 58 horse-power, presuming 
the rated no horse-power was obtained at sea-level. Con- 
sequently it will be seen that this falling-off of power at high 
altitudes exercises its adverse influence in civilian operations. 
All things considered altitude must be accepted as the 
governing factor in contemporary aeromotor design. The 
tendency is to resort to higher compressions in the engines 
to secure augmented output per cylinder for given dimen- 
sions, and obviously if the air be rarer it is impossible 

50 



The Man, the Machine, and the Air 

to obtain the requisite compression in the cylinder to get the 
designed power output. 

Although the circumstance is not always apparent to the 
eye, the air is full of "dangers to navigation." There are 
"bumps," "rapids," "whirlpools," and other aerial counter- 
parts of dangers freely encountered upon the ocean, our 
lakes and rivers. The air is always in motion. We speak 
of a calm day, and describe atmospheric quiescence as being 
"without a breath of wind." But that is merely a relative 
term. The air may not be moving laterally, but it will be 
in action in a vertical direction, the hot air rising in currents 
of varying velocity at one point while cold currents are cir- 
culating at another point to take the place of that which, 
by virtue of its heated condition, has ascended to the higher 
levels. The aeroplane is more susceptible to these variations 
of air movement in the vertical plane than the airship, for 
the simple reason that where they exist less density or pres- 
sure is encountered. From the aeroplane point of view, a 
sudden decrease in the upward vertical thrust, such as is 
encountered when passing into one of these hot channels 
of air, is somewhat disconcerting, and calls for prompt cor- 
rection, the natural tendency, of course, being for the 
machine to fall. But the decreased density not only affects 
the sustentation of the planes; it influences the power de- 
veloped by the motor as well, since the effect is precisely 
similar to that encountered at an extreme altitude, where, as 
I have already described, the reduced pressure, or density, 
brings a falling off in the power, inasmuch as the desired 
degree of compression in the cylinder cannot be maintained. 
This is what happens when the machine enters a vertically 
rising column of heated air, and the motor speedily reveals 
the effects of this diminished air density. 

5i 



All About Aircraft of To-Day 

When the wind is rushing over the surface of the earth, 
even at a moderate speed, it is thrown into a condition of 
wild confusion. Trees, houses, humps, hillocks, and other 
projections obstruct its flow, and so it eddies and fusses 
round these obstacles as the water of a river swirls and swings 
round a snag or rock in its path. True, the disturbance is 
only more or less local, but at the same time it exercises 
certain repercussive effects to an appreciable altitude, though 
with diminishing force, until at last it becomes entirely dis- 
sipated, as the radiating waves produced by a stone thrown 
into a pond become attenuated and finally disappear as they 
travel towards the bank, or become absorbed by the persistent 
and stronger wavelets created by the wind. 

But the one enemy encountered in the air which the 
aviator — in common with the mariner, the express railway 
locomotive driver, and even the motorist — regards with the 
greatest feelings of dread, is fog. It renders him far more 
helpless than his contemporaries in the other fields of loco- 
motion. All sense of direction, and situation, and even 
behaviour of machine, becomes confused. The greatest 
danger is probably drift. Although the scientist has suc- 
ceeded in devising a variety of wonderful instruments to 
guide the aviator upon his way, means of calculating drift 
have proved too baffling to be overcome. A certain degree of 
drift can be registered, but it is a doubtful quantity, and is 
just as likely to be hopelessly wrong as uncannily precise. 
A powerful wind will blow a flying machine out of its line 
of flight, but under such conditions the atmosphere is gener- 
ally clear, enabling bearings to be taken to permit correction 
of course. When a dense fog prevails the aviator is impotent. 
The only escape is to climb until the bank of fog can be 
topped, when obviously a reading of the sun will enable 

53 



The Man, the Machine, and the Air 

the course to be set readily; but, in some instances, these 
banks of fogs extend to altitudes quite beyond the ascen- 
sional capacity of the machine. 

Fog presents another danger. This is the liability of 
the machine to career in a circle, all unconsciously to the 
aviator, who labours under the delusion that he is ploughing 
along a continuous level straight course. But it has been 
demonstrated time after time. Aviators have related how 
they have plunged into a dense cloud, which may be likened 
to a thick fog, and have been surprised to find upon emer- 
gence that they are at the point at which they entered the 
bank, having described a complete circular flight. 

This tendency to move in circles is by no means confined 
to the air. If one be stranded on a desert, and there be no 
available means of guidance, such as the sun or other bear- 
ings, one will tramp a circle, although imagining that a 
straight course is being followed. It is the same in the bush, 
as the author knows from experience, when one is deprived 
of all sense of direction, and the circle described would 
appear to tend towards the side of the body upon which the 
individual is naturally disposed to depend. That is to say, 
the circle will be to the right in the case of a right-handed 
person, and to the left with one who is left-handed. As 
upon the ground and upon the sea, where rowing follows 
similar circular lines, so in the air, although the aviator will 
vehemently maintain that he has not moved his rudder the 
whole time he has been in the cloud or fog-bank. So far as 
the air is concerned, there is doubtless an unconscious accen- 
tuated pressure of the control to swing the machine in the 
direction coinciding with the side of the body which is most 
extensively utilised, and this gradual circling will con- 
tinue so long as the pressure is constant. In actual fact it 

53 



All About Aircraft of To-Day 

is not a true circle, but rather a spiral, which exercises the 
tendency to delude the individual concerned somewhat more 
effectively. 

So far as the air is concerned, the tendency to describe a 
circular route when deprived of all sense of direction does 
not constitute the most alarming feature. The foregoing is 
manifested in the horizontal plane. But as the flying machine 
has command of movement in the three dimensions, it is 
disposed to turn a circle in the vertical plane as well. That 
is to say, an aviator will plunge into a cloud or fog-bank, 
and upon emergence therefrom will not only find himself at 
the point where he entered the exasperating danger spot, but 
upside down. Consequently, two circles have been uncon- 
sciously described in the two distinct planes, and that with- 
out the aviator being a whit the wiser, which suffices to prove 
how completely fog and cloud blunt the senses. 

Since the aviator has been trained to consult his com- 
pass freely, he has been able, to a certain degree, to counter- 
act this circular travel and inversion; but the compass must 
not be accepted as an infallible guide. When first intro- 
duced during the war, when the necessity to loop the loop 
obtained, the aviator levelled a complaint against his trusty 
friend because the needle was thrown off its pivot as a result 
of the inversion. Thereupon the instrument-maker set to 
work to build a compass capable of working efficiently 
whether the aeroplane was travelling upon an even keel or 
upside down. To-day, under commercial conditions, there 
is no need to throw an aeroplane upon its back, and so the 
compass is assailed because it works unconcernedly irre- 
spective of the position of the machine. This tendency to- 
wards inversion and means for notifying the aviator thereof 
in a definite and infallible manner has not yet been fully over- 

54 



The Man, the Machine, and the Air 

come; it is a problem which demands complete solution in 
the interests of safety. Nor does the compass completely 
protect the aviator against aimless wandering in a circle, 
although, if he be accustomed to consult his guide freely, 
and has taken due precautions to protect it against distur- 
bance, the causes of which are many, he will speedily observe 
when he is out of his course. But even this would-be guid- 
ance becomes nullified if, meanwhile, the machine has 
become inverted, because the compass will probably show a 
correct reading, or rather one which would be correct were 
the aeroplane travelling on an even keel. 

I have described how, in certain essential aspects, the 
dirigible holds the advantage over the aeroplane by virtue 
of the fact that the "lift " to the vessel is due to the utilisation 
of a gas lighter than the air, wholly and exclusively for 
this purpose. But the benefit attained in the one direction 
is lost in another. Hydrogen is a magnificent and servile 
servant, but a terrible and exacting master. Its explosive 
properties, when mixed with air, constitute a grave danger. 
The ideal lifting agent for the dirigible would be one having 
the same lifting effort as hydrogen, but as inert; that is non- 
inflammable, as nitrogen. Unhappily, there is no such 
gas known to the Periodic Law. The nearest approach is 
helium — the gas which abounds in the sun, and which has 
been found upon this sphere in limited quantities. This 
gas is absolutely non-inflammable, or inert, although, un- 
fortunately, it is about .925 times heavier than hydrogen. 
In these circumstances an airship of given volume would 
only have one half the disposable lift possible with hydrogen ; 
alternatively to secure the same lifting effort possible with a 
dirigible inflated with 2,000,000 cubic feet of hydrogen, it 
would be necessary to build a vessel of approximately 

55 



All About Aircraft of To-Day 

4,000,000 cubic feet capacity charged with helium. But such 
a vessel would be absolutely proof against conflagration 
through ignition of the gas, because helium as persistently 
refuses to ignite as carbonic acid gas. In view of this pecu- 
liar inert feature possessed by helium, an effort has been 
made to reduce the risks attending the use of hydrogen by 
combining the latter with a certain quantity of helium. Pre- 
cisely why this should exercise any beneficial effect is not 
quite clear, especially in view of the fact that helium stead- 
fastly declines to associate with any of its gaseous colleagues. 
Even if mechanically combined, owing to its density, it 
would promptly settle to the bottom of the gas-bag with the 
pure hydrogen on top, in precisely the same way as vinegar 
and oil will apparently combine in a bottle when violently 
shaken up, but which will promptly disassociate themselves 
and assume different well-defined levels when the vessel is 
placed on one side. 

Moreover, helium is a somewhat expensive ally for the 
airship. Its market price, up to a year or two ago, was about 
,£350 per cubic foot. But recently the cost of this gas has 
undergone considerable reduction. A source of supply was 
discovered in the United States, the gas issuing from a well 
of natural or petroleum gas being found to be appreciably 
charged with quantities of this valuable element. Forthwith 
a plant was installed for isolating the helium, and it was 
found possible to obtain ultimately, with a separation process, 
a gas of 93 per cent, purity at the rate of 7,000 cubic feet 
per day. Since then the American Government has identi- 
fied itself with the task of recovering the pure rare element 
from this natural source of supply, and entertains hope of 
being able to recover it at the rate of 50,000 cubic feet per 
day at a cost not exceeding 5d. per cubic foot. This represents 

*6 



The Man, the Machine, and the Air 

a decided reduction against the pre-war figure of ^350 for 
the self-same quantity ; but even then its purchase is likely 
to prove a serious item as compared with hydrogen, which, 
by recourse to the electrolysis of water, can be procured for 
approximately 10s. per 1,000 cubic feet, as against ^20 per 
1,000 cubic feet for helium. 

Motives of expense would seem to preclude the prompt 
realisation of the non-inflammable and non-explosive airship. 
But this factor is not likely to retard the development of the 
dirigible. Hydrogen, though such a fearsome master, is 
not so dangerous as it appears at first sight. Its volatility 
assists its ready escape, while it speedily becomes dissi- 
pated in the air, thus becoming innocuous. Being appre- 
ciably lighter than the atmosphere, it seeks to secure its 
own equilibrium, and so forces its way out of the upper levels 
of the vessel, at a point far removed from the engines, or 
passengers' smoking-room, where naked lights are likely 
to be encountered. In certain quarters the use of hydrogen 
is construed as a menace, and an insurmountable obstacle 
to the development of the dirigible. Similar Jeremiads de- 
claimed against the use of coal-gas in our streets and houses 
a century ago, prognosticating the most terrifying calamities. 
Hydrogen in the gas-bags of a dirigible is as safe as coal- 
gas in the pipes of a building so long as its dangers are 
respected. If leakage takes place, as is known must be the 
case in the dirigible, then the circumstance must be honoured 
instead of ignored. A wise man does not look for gas leaks 
in his home with a naked light, and so the use of lights upon 
an airship should be employed with discretion. If this simple 
rule be observed no greater danger will attend travel by a 
dirigible than would be incurred with a vessel laden to the 
Water's edge with petroleum, the gas thrown off from which 

57 



All About Aircraft of To-Day 

is every whit as dangerous, but which fact, at the same time, 
does not preclude its conveyance in bulk by the millions of 
gallons across the seas, and in the company of passengers. 

There is one other phenomena of the air which deserves 
every respect. This is atmospheric electricity. It is particu- 
larly dangerous to the dirigible, although it applies to the 
aeroplane in a lesser degree; in this instance, however, its 
dangers can be more readily circumvented, as they are 
localised to the petrol tank. But the airship, as I point out 
elsewhere, is a huge fabric of metal which is capable of 
absorbing an enormous quantity of electricity, becoming con- 
verted virtually into a huge static machine. Should the 
vessel be called upon to traverse a magnetic storm, it is likely 
to be charged to the limit of its capacity with electricity. It 
may occur unsuspectedly to the commander, although certain 
of his sensitive instruments would probably reveal notifica- 
tion of the circumstance by becoming "sticky" in their 
working. Unless due precaution be observed the moment 
any part of the airship comes into contact with the earth, 
a violent static discharge would ensue, and the sparking 
might occur at a point where hydrogen gas happened to be 
lurking, in which event the vessel would go up in flame and 
smoke. This happened to one of the Zeppelin airships 
before the war. But the danger can be readily averted. All 
that is necessary is to introduce a few wire strands into the 
rope which is thrown overboard to assist mooring. This 
might even be attached to the stern casting to which the longi- 
tudinal girders are bolted, forming a permanent connection, 
being coiled and stowed in the "pulpit." In this way metallic 
contact of the wires of the cable with the metal structure of 
the ship would be assured. When the free end of the cable 
was thrown overboard, the moment it touched the ground it 

58 



The Man, the Machine, and the Air 

would act as a lightning conductor, leading the electricity 
stored in the metal fabric of the airship to earth to expend 
itself harmlessly. 

Risk of being struck by lightning during a storm is one 
against which no adequate protection can be proffered except 
when the vessel might be over the water. Then descent to a 
low level and discard of the mooring rope to trail in the water 
would ensure complete protection of the craft, because the 
rope, with its wire strands, would act as a lightning con- 
ductor. The airship then would be as safe in the most violent 
thunderstorm as the ocean liner under similar conditions, 
because it would be connected to earth. But the fabrication 
of the trailing rope would need to be carried out along strictly 
scientific lines to assure the electric current having an ade- 
quate path along which to make its way to the water, where 
it could expend itself harmlessly. When flying overland, 
under such conditions, the situation would be somewhat more 
complex. Anchoring would appear to be the only alternative, 
the mooring rope in this instance also serving as the path for 
any electric current which might feel disposed to reach the 
earth via the airship. But it is the actual lightning flash 
which is to be feared, since it would promptly fire any hydro- 
gen which might be exuding from the vessel. These dangers, 
however, while existent and worthy of consideration, for- 
tunately are infrequent. Airships of all descriptions have 
encountered storms upon many occasions during the past ten 
years, but no loss, while actually in mid-air, has been traced 
conclusively to this source, with the exception of the Zeppelin 
to which I have referred. 

Thus the struggle between man with his machine and the 
air is being waged, and it is not likely to come to any definite 
end. As soon as one menace is overcome another is en- 

5S 



All About Aircraft of To-Day 

countered. This is inevitable. Every system of locomotion, 
be it upon the sea, the railway, or the highroad, carries its 
peculiar and distinctive hazards. They can never be com- 
pletely and satisfactorily eliminated, although they can be 
very materially mitigated. The way of the air is no exception, 
and the existence of the perils, which is admitted, cannot be 
accepted as an insuperable obstacle to progress. 



60 



CHAPTER IV 

The Structure of the Aeroplane 

r I^HE aeroplane is an artificial bird of wood, wire, warp and 
woof, equipped with a motor. Such a description may 
sound somewhat in the nature of a generalisation, perhaps, 
but, nevertheless, it is the impression conveyed when survey- 
ing the craft while motionless upon the ground. Nothing is to 
be seen but broad sweeps of fabric, forming the wings and 
empennage, slender cross-wires, and the elongated box con- 
stituting the fuselage, the struts between the main planes, and 
the chassis, which, for the most part, are contrived from 
wood. Certainly the eye fails to realise that possibly as many 
as 20,000 — or more — different pieces of wood and metal have 
been cunningly contrived and fitted together to produce the 
completed machine, some of which parts are so small as to 
slip readily into the waistcoat pocket. And each part has 
been devised to fulfil some specific function to contribute to 
the strength, rigidity, and stability of the whole. 

The intricacy of this constructional work is completely 
hidden. The wings glisten in the sunlight with the sheen of 
silk, the body is as smooth as glass, while the wires seem to 
be as fine as the threads of a spider's web. This superfine 
finish is imperative to ensure the machine offering the mini- 
mum of resistance to the air during flight. If it were not so, 
and all surfaces were left rough, speed would suffer severe 
diminution, because the displaced molecules of air would 

61 



All About Aircraft of To-Day 

cling to the minute projections as cotton wool to the bristles 
of a brush, to act as a drag, accentuating what is known as 
skin friction. But, by imparting the polish to the surfaces, 
the displaced air is enabled to glide readily along to fall into 
the space immediately behind the moving machine. 

In order to gain some convincing idea of the volume of 
work involved in the fabrication of the modern aeroplane, as 
well as its extreme and wonderful complexity, we must strip it 
of its skin from end to end. We must remove the fabric from 
the wings and the wooden sheathing from the fuselage. 

What do we find? A beautiful skeleton; a bewildering 
assortment of spars, ribs, and small bones of infinite variety. 
If we examine the structure closely we observe that virtually 
each section follows a common form, not in shape perhaps, 
but certainly in principle. Each part is in reality a girder, 
and it instantly recalls to mind similar work in another sphere, 
which is carried out upon a more imposing scale, and with 
which we are more familiar — the lattice girder bridge. Then 
we appreciate the fact that the designing of an aeroplane is 
essentially a task for the engineer, involving calculations for 
strains and stresses, both in tension and compression. The 
bigger the machine the more striking is the analogy, although 
common principles obtain, irrespective of weight, dimensions, 
projected field of application, carrying capacity, and speed. 

Let us now dissect this wonderful foundation of wood and 
wire forming a biplane. But before coming to close quarters 
with the structure, let us assume a position a few feet away 
from the nose, and in line with the longitudinal axis of the 
machine. Then we shall notice, although it is not a feature 
of every aeroplane, that the wings have a "set " in relation to 
the fuselage. They are observed to rise at a slight angle from 
the shoulders of the machine to the tips of the wings, present- 

62 



The Structure of the Aeroplane 

ing the form of a very widely-opened letter V. The angle 
which the wings offer to the horizontal line drawn through 
the point where they are connected to the fuselage is known 
as the dihedral angle; "positive" if the inclination be up- 
ward, and "negative " if downward. The positive angle is that 
generally followed, and the arrangement is introduced to 
contribute to the lateral stability of the machine whilst in 
flight. 

We will now proceed to investigate the formation of the 
wings. The right upper wing will suit our purpose, because 
the wings are of common design, so that the description of one 
will apply to all. The first "bone" is the transverse length 
of wood which cleaves the air when the machine is flying. 
This is known as the cutting or leading edge, the parallel 
fellow member forming the rear of the wing being called the 
trailing edge. A few inches behind the leading edge, and a 
short distance in front of the trailing edge, respectively, is a 
heavy wooden member, stretching from one end of the wing to 
the other. These are the main spars and, in reality, constitute 
the foundation of the wing's structure. As may be supposed, 
they are of substantial dimensions, and occasionally are 
fashioned from a solid length of timber, slightly channelled 
where possible, to effect a certain saving in weight without 
imperilling strength. The beam behind the leading edge is 
known as the front main spar, while its fellow is known as 
the rear main spar, and the former is slightly the bigger of 
the two. By means of these two massive members the wings 
are bolted to the fuselage. 

The spars and edges are connected together and held in 
their relative positions by the aid of ribs. These ribs, which 
are connected to the two edges and main spars, follow the 
special design mentioned in the previous chapter, and give 

63 



All About Aircraft of To-Day 

to the underside of the wing, in the transverse plane — that is, 
from back to front — the desired concavity when the skeleton 
has been clothed with fabric. If one of these ribs be laid flat 
upon the ground it will be found to follow somewhat the 
shape of a hockey stick, but with a much flatter curve. It 
tapers at both ends, that to the rear being long and gradual, 
while that to the nose is sharper. The thickest or widest 
section comes in the curve, or hump, which is called upon to 
withstand the greatest pressure exerted by the air. This 
curvature is known as the camber, while the straight line 
drawn from point to point on the under side of the rib is 
the chord. 

The ribs are spaced at intervals of a few inches and at 
right angles to the longitudinal members. They are of 
extremely light construction, but to ensure the maximum 
strength compatible with lightness, the section lying between 
the two main spars is built upon the lattice principle, with the 
exception of the two ribs at either end, which are solid. The 
building of the rib itself, an extremely interesting piece of 
work, is described in greater detail in the following chapter. 
At intervals throughout the wing other members of square 
or rectangular section, but smaller, are introduced, to contri- 
bute to the greater strength and rigidity of the whole. Those 
running transversely, i.e. from leading to trailing edge and 
parallel with the ordinary cross pieces, are known as com- 
pression ribs, while the similar longitudinal members laid 
parallel to the main spars are called stringers. 

By introducing the ribs the wing is really divided into 
a number of shallow box-like compartments, and we now find 
that additional strength is imparted to the whole by means 
of wires. This bracing is confined to the area lying between 
the two main spars, to which the wires are anchored by the 

64 




1 y \% 

Timber store where all wood is carefully inspected, tested, and stored. 




The wood-working shop. 




• ■-:_ 




^ M 



Girls setting ribs and cross-bracing forming the wings. 
AEROPLANE-BUILDING AT THE CROSSLEY MOTOR WORKS 



The Structure of the Aeroplane 

aid of turnbuckles. These wires are carried from corner 
to corner — that is, in a diagonal direction — forming a scries 
of X's, side by side, in the plan of the wing. The point of 
intersection, that is, where the wires cross, is the centre of an 
intermediate rib, so that every two compartments form a unit 
for wire-bracing purposes. To the uninitiated, the reason for 
the incorporation of these wires may seem somewhat inscrut- 
able, but they perform important specific functions. The 
wires running in an outward direction from the body of the 
machine— that is, from rear spar to front spar— are the flying 
drift wires, while those extending diagonally in the reverse 
direction, namely, inwards towards the body and from front 
to rear main spars are the landing drift wires. 

At the extreme inner corner of each wing the continuous 
plane surface is interrupted by the hinged flap or aileron, 
whereby the lateral stability of the machine is maintained as 
already described. The ailerons of the upper and lower wings 
are connected, and are actuated by the one control wire 
extending to the "joy-stick," so that they shall move in 
unison, up or down, as desired, and to an equivalent degree. 
When resting normally, these ailerons form part and parcel 
of the wing. It is just as if, after the wing has been built, a 
corner section were cut out and then replaced, but on hinges. 
The whole of this skeleton is enclosed in a skin of fabric, both 
above and below, secured in position by means of rivets and 
stitching, to present a smooth, even surface, similar to that of 
the feathered wing of the bird, to the air. 

In view of the fact that the wings constitute the most vital 
part of the machine, being called upon to support the weight 
of the motor, fuselage, passengers, and other impedimenta, 
it is imperative that they should be built with extreme care, 
and, at the same time, offer the maximum of strength con- 
f 65 



All About Aircraft of To-Day 

sistent with the minimum of weight. In the case of the 
biplane, with which we are dealing, the wings are divided 
into pairs, known as right and left, or starboard and port, 
pairs respectively, in relation to the pilot when facing the 
direction of travel, the upper and lower planes on either side 
forming a pair. 

The upper and lower wings are spaced a prescribed dis- 
tance apart, and are maintained invariably in that position 
by means of rigid lengths of wood known as interplane struts. 
These are set in pairs, in line, in the direction of travel. 
Those forming a pair are spaced the same distance apart as 
the main spars in the wings to which they are secured. As 
a rule there are two pairs on either side of the body, and each 
strut is given its distinctive name for purposes of ready iden- 
tification, and according to position in relation to the pilot 
as follows : Starboard inner front interplane strut, starboard 
inner rear interplane strut, starboard outer front interplane 
strut, starboard outer rear interplane strut. The same nomen- 
clature is followed in relation to the other side, only port 
is substituted for starboard. Thus, port inner rear interplane 
strut would signify the strut nearer the trailing edge of the 
left wing. In all terms relative to position in connection with 
the aeroplane, those presented to the pilot while in his seat 
are implied, i.e. right, signifying the pilot's right-hand. 

When the machine is surveyed from the front, the wires 
appear to be stretched somewhat haphazardly in all directions 
in the vertical plane ; but, as a matter of fact, each line of wires 
fulfils some defined purpose. The diagonal wires between 
each pair of inner and outer interplane struts are incidence 
wires. Those running upward and outwards are the flying 
wires, the principal function thereof being to transfer the lift 
of the planes to the body or other part of the structure. Those 

66 



The Structure of the Aeroplane 

running in the reverse direction, downwards and outwards, 
are the landing or anti-lift wires, because they resist the 
forces in the direction opposite to lift, take up the weight of 
the wings when the aeroplane is resting on the ground, and 
also absorb landing stresses. 

In the early types of biplanes, such as those flown by the 
Farman Brothers and their contemporaries, the planes were 
connected by canvas partitions dividing the wings into boxes 
or cells. This vertical walling has been abandoned, but the 
formation then presented is preserved in name, the box-like 
space between each adjacent pair of interplane struts being 
known as cellules. 

The distance the upper and lower planes are spaced apart 
is the gap. The reach from the point where the plane is 
bolted to the body or centre section is the length of the wing, 
while the distance from leading to trailing edge is the depth. 
The centre section represents the part of the plane lying 
between the right and left wings, immediately over the fuse- 
lage, which, as a rule, is perfectly horizontal, while the over- 
all distance from one wing tip to the other forms the span. 
In some biplanes there is no dihedral angle, the planes being 
continuous from end to end and perfectly straight. In this 
instance the fuselage is bolted to the centre section struts and 
rests on the centre of the lower plane. Occasionally, as for 
instance in the Short biplane, the lower wings are shorter 
than the upper planes, to save the wing-tips from possible 
injury by the waves while riding at anchor, the top plane in 
this instance having an overhang on either side in its relation 
to the bottom plane. 

Before leaving the wings, we will walk to the side to 
survey them from one end. Then we observe that the two 
planes are not set one above the other with the respective 

67 



All About Aircraft of To-Day 

leading and trailing edges in a vertical line, but that the lead- 
ing edge of the lower plane is set somewhat behind or in 
advance of that of the upper plane. This disposition is the 
stagger of the planes, and the degree to which it is carrried 
out varies somewhat widely. The backward stagger of the 
planes was particularly pronounced in the "Airco 5," the 
front edge of the upper plane being almost immediately above 
the trailing edge of the lower plane. The arrangement 
adopted in this machine aroused considerable comment from 
the degree to which it was carried, since it imparted a truly 
startling effect; but it was adopted in order to afford the pilot 
an increased forward and vertical field of vision, and in this 
connection proved eminently satisfactory. In many machines, 
however, staggering is scarcely favoured at all. We may 
also notice that the chord of the plane describes an upward 
angle from the trailing edge to the horizontal. This is the 
dihedral angle, angle of incidence, or angle of attack, meaning 
the angle a plane makes with the direction of its motion 
relative to the air. 

The body, variously known as the fuselage, car, or nacelle, 
follows the rough form of an elongated box, tapering gradu- 
ally towards the stern, and having a sharply tapered blunt 
nose. If the propeller be carried in front, it is mounted in 
the nose of the frame. Then comes the motor, followed by 
the pilot's seat or cockpit, and passenger accommodation 
behind. The fuselage, while built as lightly as possible, is 
yet of exceeding strength from the system upon which it is 
constructed, and is freely strengthened by vertical and trans- 
verse struts with diagonal wire bracing. When the propeller 
is placed in the front, the aeroplane is of the tractor type, 
because the screw, by its rotation, draws the machine through 
the air. If the propeller be disposed behind the wings, the 

68 



The Structure of the Aeroplane 

aeroplane belongs to the pusher class, since the revolving 
screw forces or pushes the machine through the air. 

At the extreme stern comes the empennage or tail unit. 
Set vertically upon the back of the fuselage, in line with the 
rudder when the latter is normal, then forming, as it were, 
part of the latter, is a small vertical plane or fin, introduced 
to increase the stability of the machine. At right angles to 
this fin, and projecting from the tail on either side, is another 
fixed fin of similar design and shape. These form the tail 
plane, and serve to assist in stabilisation in the horizontal 
or lateral direction. These vertical and horizontal planes con- 
stitute the tail proper of the machine, and play an important 
part in the maintenance of balance, acting in the self-same 
capacity as the tail of a kite. To the rear edge of each hori- 
zontal tail plane is hinged a small flap or aileron, the elevators, 
connected by control wires to the "joy-stick." They can be 
moved up or down, as desired, to control and steady the 
aeroplane in the direction of travel. Finally, there is another 
plane, set perpendicularly to the main supporting surfaces 
or wings, and which is movable about its axis. This is the 
rudder, controlling movement to the left or right, the wires 
from which are led to the extremities of the bar set athwart- 
ships and centrally pivoted in the pilot's cockpit, and which 
is actuated by the feet. 

Projecting from the underside of the fuselage, towards 
the tail, is a curved leg. This is the tail skid, which assists 
in absorbing the shocks incidental to landing, and which, 
by dragging along the ground, acts as a brake, and thus slows 
up the machine. Towards the prow of the aeroplane, and 
mounted upon the underside, is the chassis or undercarriage. 
It is substantially built, because it not only serves to carry 
the machine and to support it while resting upon the ground, 

69 



All About Aircraft of To-Day 

but also assists in the ascent, and absorbs the shocks arising 
from landing. The undercarriage is built up of wooden 
struts, strengthened with bracing wires, and is equipped with 
a heavy axle to carry the wheels. The number of wheels 
introduced varies according to the dimensions and weight of 
the machine. A small aeroplane may have two, while a big 
machine may have as many as eight wheels. In the case 
of the seaplane, the wheels are supplanted by floats, for 
reasons which are obvious. The wheels are shod with massive 
pneumatic tyres, nine or more inches in diameter. For taking 
up the shocks incidental to landing, shock absorbers are in- 
troduced, being contrived from elastic or india-rubber for the 
most part, this material having been found highly efficient 
for this application, although springs and oil are also 
employed. 

Our dissection of the aeroplane is now completed. Of 
course, if we felt so disposed, we might conduct this task in 
greater detail ; but I think the foregoing will suffice for our 
purpose, acquainting us with the principal terms used in its 
design. From what has been related, it will be recognised 
that the contemporary artificial bird is a far more complex 
piece of apparatus than the mere observation of the machine, 
while at rest upon the ground, would tend to convey. In the 
next chapter we will follow the construction of the heavier- 
than-air machine through its numerous stages. 



70 



CHAPTER V 
The Construction of an Aeroplane 

SCIENTIFIC accuracy and beauty of design, as conceived 
by the engineer, would count for naught were the creator's 
handiwork translated loosely from the abstract, as represented 
by the drawings, into the concrete, as revealed by the living 
machine. The workmanship in the fabrication of each of the 
20,000 or more separate parts entering into the modern aero- 
plane, be they large and straightforward, or small and finicky, 
must be above reproach, because the imperfection of a single 
tiny piece may jeopardise the whole. While no chain is 
stronger, despite its proportions, than its weakest link, so 
the safety of an aeroplane in the air depends upon the ex- 
cellence of the material, workmanship, and fitting of the 
smallest piece. If the design be right, the resultant machine 
will leave nothing to be desired when construction is con- 
ducted along superfine lines. The builder cannot translate 
an indifferent design into a perfect machine, but he certainly 
can convert a perfect design into a dangerous craft by 
the display of poor workmanship. From this it will be 
seen that the construction of the aeroplane demands a high 
grade of labour — men and women of super-skill, patience, 
and who are conscientious in their work. 

The urgency for these qualifications is emphasised in 
every works devoted to this phase of activity. Inscribed in 
bold letters, and so prominently displayed as to catch the 

7i 



All About Aircraft of To-Day 

eyes of those toiling at every bench, is a warning — the precise 
wording is varied, though the same emphatic meaning is 
conveyed — which runs : 



REMEMBER THAT A HIDDEN MISTAKE MAY 
CAUSE A BRAVE MAN TO LOSE HIS LIFE. 



No error can be justified. The risk to the life and limbs 
of those who use the high-road of the air is too heavy to 
permit the slightest deviation from the rigid specifications 
laid down, or to admit the incorporation pf the smallest 
integral part which is not up to standard. 

During the war, owing to the insatiable demand for aero- 
planes, factories devoted to the construction of this fighting 
arm were as densely dotted throughout Britain as black- 
berries upon a bramble-covered hillside in Autumn. Some 
were in being before war burst upon us ; others were extem- 
porised from buildings which, under peace conditions, were 
identified with other and more blessed phases of endeavour; 
and many were built during the period of hostilities to con- 
tribute to the ever-rising stream of supply. In view of this 
circumstance, it might seem to be invidious to single out any 
one establishment for a visit to witness the actual production 
of an aeroplane at close quarters, were it not for the fact that 
Lord Weir, who, during his term of office as Minister of the 
Air, was mainly responsible for the creation of the national 
flying-machine producing hives, went out of his way to in- 
dividualise one of these aeroplane mills by describing it 
as "the finest factory of its kind in the world." So we 
cannot do better than to accept the opportunity to wander 
through this model establishment. 

72 



The Construction of an Aeroplane 

The factory in question not only deserved such premier 
recognition upon the comparative basis, but demanded more 
than passing notice from the circumstance that it was the 
largest of its character in the world, and, moreover, was 
regarded bs a striking illustration of supernal lay-out, 
organisation and efficiency, as well as output. Further- 
more, we learn incidentally that this particular factory is 
invested with a distinctive touch of romance, offering a con- 
crete example of what this country and its barons of industry 
can achieve when necessity so demands, because its actual 
creation ranks as one of the greatest factory-building achieve- 
ments associated with our military endeavours. 

During the early months of 19 17 the need for more and 
more aeroplanes induced the Air Ministry to approach the 
company identified with the manufacture of the Crossley 
motor-car With the request that it should embark upon the 
production of aeroplanes. At the time the existing factories 
were overwhelmed with orders for cars which were in demand 
by the War Office, as well as the manufacture of aeroplane 
motors. The recommendation that it should embrace the 
new line of production was accompanied by the stipulation 
that such work was to be carried out without interfering with 
the works in being, and their products, by one jot or tittle. 
Not a man was to be drawn from the benches for the new job. 

The terms were distinctly onerous, but the gentleman pre- 
siding over the destinies of the Crossley motor-car is of 
infinite resource, makes light of difficulty, and is possessed of 
striking powers of organisation, while, when the occasion 
arises he is a hustler comparable with the most tireless 
geniuses of this ilk which the United States, the home of the 
hustler, can produce. Extensions to the existing works being 
impracticable, Mr. W. M. Letts, C.B.E., the gentleman in 

73 



All About Aircraft of To-Day 

question, decided to erect a new factory for the authorities 
especially for the new range of enterprise, and to this end he 
secured a plot of virgin ground at Heaton Chapel, contiguous 
to the main railway system running from Manchester to 
Stockport. 

Speed was the all-important factor. Forthwith the draw- 
ings for the buildings were rushed through at tip-top speed, 
while the country was scoured for the requisite machinery. 
But although draughtsmen and others were called upon to 
work day and night, and inexorable time was driving hard, 
haste was not permitted to jeopardise method. The planning 
of the new factory, which covers 15 acres, has been carried 
out in strict accordance with the latest planning precepts, and 
is accepted as being one of the most convincing expressions of 
science in its application to this field in these islands. The 
first sod was turned in October, 1917. Within nine months 
the fifteen acres of land were covered with substantial per- 
manent buildings of the most up-to-date character, equipped 
with machinery, and were not only in full blast, giving em- 
ployment to 2,500 hands, but had turned out a round 400 
aeroplanes. This was one of the smartest of the many notable 
feats achieved by Britain during the war. But in this par- 
ticular instance, aeroplane production was denied the oppor- 
tunity to get into its true stride, owing to the signing of the 
Armistice. However, the work accomplished serves to convey 
some impression of what could have been contributed to our 
aeroplane building efforts had the war continued, because 
from these fifteen acres of single-floor workshops several 
thousand aeroplanes would have been turned out complete 
and ready for the war in the air during the year 1919. 

From the factory point of view, this establishment consti- 
tutes a model in more senses than one. It demonstrates how 

74 



The Construction of an Aeroplane 

maximum efficiency and output may be secured. The raw 
materials enter at the one, and the completed machines issue 
from the other end — an application of the wonderful system 
pursued by the meat-packing plants of Chicago to quite an 
unusual realm of activity. The main entrance to the shops 
is from what is a street in itself, the thoroughfare being 
1,040 feet in length by 60 feet wide. Up in the lofty glass- 
covered roof is a travelling electric crane, capable of lifting 
one ton, which is able to travel from one end of the street 
to the other, even beyond at the lower end, to span the special 
railway sidings laid down, as well as to command the whole 
30 feet of roadway on either side of the central overhead track. 
Consequently, within this space the largest and heaviest loads 
could be handled with ease, being picked up and set down 
just wherever desired. Another outstanding feature is the 
main shop, which must be one of the largest in this country 
under a single roof, seeing that it measures 1,040 feet in 
length by 282 feet in width. A single walk round this shop, 
devoted to assembling and erecting, is an invigorating con- 
stitutional of half a mile, as we discover. But as we are upon 
an intimate stage-to-stage journey of discovery and enlighten- 
ment, that is, following the aeroplane throughout its whole 
course of construction, we shall find we have completed 
a walking trip of a few miles by the time we reach the door 
through which the finished machines pass to be sped away 
to the Service flying grounds. 

But the principle adopted contributed to the national 
requirements to a striking degree— namely, the production of 
the maximum number of aeroplanes, of unassailable quality 
and perfection, within the minimum of time, at the lowest cost, 
and with the minimum of labour, which, for such work, had 
become scarce at the time this aeroplane incubator was 

75 



All About Aircraft of To-Day 

brought into operation. The mammoth single shop facilitates 
supervision of the many intermediate stages, and allows the 
flow of work to proceed from point to point rhythmically 
and at the desired volume. There is no doubling back or 
diversion to one side or the other; the product advances direct 
from stage to stage in a continuous line as a river making a 
bee-line across country from its source to the sea. 

The raw material involved in the fabrication of Mother 
Britannia's Stormy Petrels may be broadly divided into three 
classes — wood, metal, and fabric, or linen, with which the 
planes are covered. Of course, there are accessories innu- 
merable either in the raw or finished state, ranging from dope 
and varnish, to propellers and motors. These are not made 
here, but are purchased complete ready for installation, being 
held in astonishing bulk in the stores adjacent to the precise 
points for their specific installation, so that the work may not 
suffer the slightest slowing down from insufficiency of sup- 
plies. The metal work similarly arrives in several forms, but 
many of the requisite accessories, such as turn-buckles, bolts, 
nuts and so forth are made on the spot; for which special 
shops, equipped with the latest tools, have had to be pro- 
vided. The metal shops must necessarily be of a complete 
character, because the work which has to be fulfilled is 
exceedingly varied, including the formation of large parts by 
huge and powerful presses from the solid sheet, stamping, 
milling and automatic drilling — to mention only a few of the 
operations involved. 

The wood arrives in the baulk. Spruce and ash are the 
most eminently suitable woods for the fabrication of the 
wooden parts of the aeroplane, such as edges, ribs, spars, and 
struts, but the consumption of timber to satisfy the claims 
of war was so enormous that one or two other woods had to 

76 



The Construction of an Aeroplane 

be pressed into service. Notable among these, we learn, was 
Oregon pine. We see baulks swung from the railway trucks 
to be stored in a capacious timber shed, the walls of which, 
we notice, are freely perforated to permit the circulation of 
air. Samples of wood are drawn from each consignment to 
be subjected to test, since in the construction of the aeroplane 
the golden principle "Safety First" obtains, to which I make 
more detailed reference in the following chapter. 

But much of the wood received is in the green condition, 
or has only been partially seasoned. Until this requirement 
is fulfilled it cannot be used. Mother Nature generally carries 
out this task because she does it so well. But in these high- 
pressure days industry cannot wait for Nature. Her process, 
though thorough, is slow, occupying years. Science, there- 
fore, has come to the assistance of commerce, and has per- 
fected a means of completing seasoning to the required 
degree in as many hours as Nature would demand in 
years. 

Timber conditioning is an interesting process. The baulks 
of timber are cut up into the desired dimensions, and the 
pieces are placed in huge ovens, or chambers, the air within 
which is raised to a certain degree of temperature. For con- 
ditioning spruce, for instance, it must be raised to 85 degrees 
Fahrenheit, while it may be lifted to 125 degrees for ash. The 
hot air evaporates the moisture or sap carried in the wood. 
Naturally the air within the oven becomes humid as it soaks 
up this moisture, and accordingly must be expelled, because 
it is essential to use dry air, which has an affinity for the 
moisture. This absorption of moisture takes place far more 
speedily than might be imagined. Consequently the whole 
of the air within the chamber has to be changed at brief in- 
tervals. In the conditioners in question we find it is changed 

77 



All About Aircraft of To-Day 

every 60 seconds, or 60 times an hour. But the withdrawal 
of moisture must only be carried to a certain degree. It is 
imperative that a certain percentage be left in the wood, this 
proportion contributing to its inherent strength. If the whole 
of the moisture is withdrawn it leaves the wood dry and 
brittle, and in this condition it would be quite unsuited for 
the skeleton of the aeroplane. The limit of moisture is about 
14-17 per cent., at which the wood is excellently adapted for 
its avowed purpose. Sometimes the wood does not possess the 
amount of moisture desired, having been withdrawn in the 
natural seasoning process. In this event the conditioner, 
after the wood has been inserted, is charged with humid hot 
air. The dry wood greedily extracts this moisture from the 
air, the prevailing heat facilitating the process, and in this 
manner the moisture is restored and the wood rendered fit 
for the work in hand. It will be observed that conditioning 
acts both ways — the removal of the surplus sap from wood or 
the restoration of any deficiency in this connection. 

Upon withdrawal from the conditioning chamber the wood 
is ready for working, and it is passed on to the wood machine- 
shop. Here are a diversity of tools, every one of which de- 
rives its driving power through belting connected to under- 
ground shafts driven by electric motors. There are machines 
for sawing the timber into pieces of the desired thickness, 
width, and length, others for moulding, fret and band saws, 
tenoning machines, and so on. Each specific task has its 
individual tool, which ensures fulfilment of the work in the 
shortest time with the minimum of effort. Accuracy in dimen- 
sions is assured by recourse to patterns combined with check- 
ing and counter-checking by means of gauges and other 
measuring devices at frequent intervals. 

One machine arrests our attention because of its novelty, 
78 



The Construction of an Aeroplane 

and we learn that it was designed essentially to meet the 
demands arising from the pressure of war. This is the strut 
copier. Struts are freely used in the aeroplane, as we have 
observed in dissecting its skeleton — for spacing the wings 
apart, the undercarriage, and so on. They are of standard 
streamline shapes and dimensions. Thus the interplane struts 
of the biplane, of which twelve at least are required, are iden- 
tical in design and size. By aid of the copier they can be 
turned out in rapid succession. The master strut is fashioned 
to dead accuracy. It forms the pattern or guide for the cutting 
tool, the movement of which is governed throughout thereby, 
so that the section of timber inserted in the machine is con- 
verted into an exact fellow of the master, conforming there- 
with in every detail — dimensions and forms — within a few 
minutes. By means of this ingenious machine the manufac- 
ture of struts has been speeded up very pronouncedly. 

Watching it at work we are not surprised when we are 
told that it will turn out four struts while one is being shaped 
by hand. This machine contributed in no small measure to 
the accelerated output of aeroplanes. Another novel machine 
is the sander, which imparts just that eminently desired 
degree of smooth finish to the member without deforming it 
by the smallest fraction of an inch, and which, owing to the 
maintenance of uniform pressure throughout the operation, 
is able to fulfil the task to a finer nicety than hand-sand- 
papering, while, of course, it is immeasurably quicker. As 
may naturally be supposed from the character of the work, 
an immense volume of dust, chips and refuse arises from this 
working in wood, but this is automatically picked up in dust- 
collecting ducts, which whirl it away to the refuse-destructor 
in the boiler-house, where this waste is induced to assist in 
raising steam for the operation of the plant. By means of 

79 



All About Aircraft of To-Day 

this apparatus the atmosphere within the wood-working shop 
is kept clear and pure, instead of being freely contaminated 
to the detriment of the health of the workers. 

One of the most interesting corners of the factory is that 
where the ribs are made. These, as we have seen, are built 
upon the lines of the lattice girder, the idea being to secure 
the maximum of strength compatible with the minimum of 
weight. In reality the rib is built up of thin wisps of wood, 
which, when we pick them up for examination, appear to be 
too absurdly thin and fragile to support several hundreds, 
even thousands, of pounds in the air. Why, they are barely 
a quarter of an inch in thickness and not much more than an 
inch, if that, in width 1 Their manufacture is intricate and 
essentially a task for small and nimble fingers, so we are not 
surprised to see women and girls extensively employed in 
their production. Analysis of the rib shows two thin flanges, 
forming the top and bottom surfaces upon which the fabric 
bears. Centrally along each flange is attached a thin vertical 
piece of web, converting the two members into T-pieces when 
seen in section, the lower, of course, being inverted. These 
two are brought to the curvature desired, forming the shape 
of the rib, and are connected together by small cross pieces set 
diagonally, forming a lattice, attached by brads to the webs 
of the T-pieces and cut so as to drop within the flanges. Care 
is required in cutting the diagonals so that their edges may 
press firmly and accurately against the inner face of the 
flanges of the ribs, while skill likewise has to be displayed in 
driving the brads home without splitting the wood. 

The light, dexterous touch possessed by women and girls 
is excellent for this work, while temperamentally they are 
better adapted than men to the task, because it is extremely 
finicky, demanding patience as well as immunity from bore- 

80 




Varnishing ailerons by com- 
pressed air pistols. 



Doping the wings. 




Varnishing the wings. 
AEROPLANE BUILDING AT THE CROSSLEY MOTOR WORKS 



The Construction of an Aeroplane 

dom by its monotony or repetition. When completed the 
rib weighs but a few ounces. 

Although the integral parts would readily snap in the 
fingers, it is surprising the amount of pressure the completed 
rib will withstand without suffering any visible deflection of its 
designed curvature, as we are able to prove to our own satis- 
faction. We grasp an end in either hand, and no matter 
how much pressure we exert in the vertical direction, we find 
the rib to offer complete resistance to our efforts. Of course, 
if we impose the strain slightly out of the vertical — a twisting 
stress — we bring about its collapse, although even then not 
so readily as we were disposed to believe possible. This ex- 
perience recalls the old effort to crush an egg f even a small 
one, by pressure between the thumb and forefinger of one 
hand. So long as the pressure is exerted along the longi- 
tudinal axis the egg will stand up to the strain ; it only gives 
way when the strain is deflected a trifle to one side of that 
axis. 

We see how every part for the projected aeroplane, whether 
in wood or metal, follows a similarly careful fashioning pro- 
cess. There is nothing haphazard. Patterns are furnished 
for everything, while we observe gauges to be used as freely 
as the tools. Promiscuous selection of parts is made at every 
stage for examination and testing to see that the work is being 
maintained up to the desired standard of measurements and 
excellence of workmanship. The laboratory is probably one 
of the busiest and n-.ost responsible corners of the hive, be- 
cause here everything is tested to destruction, records being 
made at intervals and the collapsed sections subjected to 
minute investigation to determine, if at all possible, the cause 
of the failure, and, in the event of it occurring at what the 
engineer considers to be a relatively low limit for the design 
g 81 



All About Aircraft of To-Day 

of the work or the character of the material, to discover ways 
and means to improve it, and thus obtain augmented strength 
and resistance. 

In the previous chapter I have described the spars as being 
the foundation for the wings. In view of this circumstance 
it is obvious that these members should be possessed of a 
high degree of strength. Originally, to ensure this end being 
fulfilled to complete satisfaction, the choicest lengths of suit- 
able wood were reserved for this duty — the pick of the basket 
as it were — while experience, which was relatively circum- 
scribed, demanded that they should be fashioned from the 
solid piece. But with longer wings selection of suitable lengths 
of timber became somewhat more exacting, while one was 
denied the opportunity of determining whether the wood was 
sound right through. In order to obviate the use of solid 
pieces, the internal composition of which might be doubtful, 
a system of building up the spars on the box principle was 
made. Four lengths, say of 24 feet, or whatever happened 
to be the wing-length, and of a certain width and thickness, 
were prepared and secured together to form a girder, the 
interior, of course, being hollow. This practice offered the 
advantage of a saving in weight. But the box-spar has been 
superseded by what is known as the laminated spar, which, 
as we are able to see for ourselves, represents a decided im- 
provement, because it gives far greater strength. 

If we measure the front spar of, for instance, the DH 10, 
finished and set in its wing, we find that it measures 3 inches 
wide by 5 inches deep, and is 30 feet in length. It is built up 
of eight superimposed layers of wood, 3% inches wide, and 
with a depth when assembled of 5^ inches in the rough. 
These eight pieces are glued together to form a solid beam, 
which is worked down to the final dimensions. Not only is 

82 



The Construction of an Aeroplane 

the spar built up in this manner far stronger than one shaped 
from the solid piece of wood, but strength is uniform through- 
out. The sections of wood being relatively thin — less than 
^ inch — are not likely to be faulty. Selection can be made 
to greater advantage. Another distinct benefit which accrues 
is that the arrangement permits the use of short lengths, pro- 
vided they are of the desired width and thickness, which 
otherwise would be wasted. When odd lengths are incor- 
porated it is the practice to sandwich them between the two 
upper and bottom laminations, which are in continuous 
lengths, because these are exposed to the full stresses of ten- 
sion and compression respectively, the former strain being 
borne by the top layers of the beam and compression by the 
lowest layer. Should any joints be introduced in the inter- 
mediate five layers, care is observed not to bring them into 
line. They are staggered, thus eliminating any possible 
point of weakness as would otherwise arise were the joints 
brought into line. In this way wastage of wood is reduced 
to the absolute minimum ; what may be rejected is altogether 
useless owing to flaws. 

The one requirement in building a spar upon the lami- 
nated principle is that the layers be cut, planed and surfaced 
true to gauge. Under modern machine methods there is very 
little cause for apprehension upon this score. The system 
also is applicable to any shaped spar, whether it be perfectly 
straight or curved, the curvature, of course, being obtaine'd 
by submitting the wood to steam heat while being bent. So 
long as good animal glue is used a perfectly sound job may 
be safely anticipated. Scarcely any pressure is employed to 
secure the firm adhesion of the laminations, the member being 
merely assembled in a jig and subsequently transferred to a 
hand-secured press to dry. 

83 



All About Aircraft of To-Day 

Building a spar in this way does not take much more time 
than is involved in the shaping of the member from the one 
solid piece of wood. The time normally employed for gluing 
up the eight layers of wood is fifteen minutes, but at the 
National Aeroplane Factory (Crossley Motors, Limited), 
owing to the efficiency and perfect organisation prevailing, the 
task was reduced to 12 minutes. The member is left in the 
press for 12 hours, and the total period of time required in 
making a spar along these lines, from the first receipt of the 
laminated sections to be cut and assembled, to the delivery 
of the finished article ready for building into the wing, is 
about 18 hours. The fashioning of the solid-piece spar — 
from the raw length to the finished article — occupies about 
6 hours. Superficially it seems that the preparation of the 
laminated spar requires about 12 hours more than the 
corresponding production of the member from the solid, but 
against this must be considered the possibility of the last- 
named suffering rejection either upon completion, or when 
half-finished, from the discovery of some unsuspected 
defect. 

Rejection after partial manufacture, or when completed, is 
by no means an exceptional circumstance in connection with 
the fabrication of the one-piece spar, because it is absolutely 
impossible to determine the character of the heart of the wood 
until the workman has worked down towards it with his tools. 
Furthermore, the element of doubt is always more pronounced 
in connection with the solid than with the built-up member, 
because the suitability of the wood for the laminations has 
been determined long before they reach the actual stage of 
application. Last, but not least, there is the item of wastage 
to be borne in mind, which is much heavier with the solid 
spar than with its built-up contemporary, which in these davs 

84 



The Construction of an Aeroplane 

of costly raw material and of dubious quality is likely to be 
a serious item. 

While the woodwork has been under way the requisite 
pieces in metal have undergone test and fabrication. This is 
work incidental to every metal-working shop equipped with 
automatic drilling machines, both single and multiple, 
presses, capstan and automatic and other lathes, so that this 
work does not arouse undue attention. But there is one phase 
of the metal-working operations which, as we see, deserves 
more than passing notice. Sections of metal have to be joined 
together, and here the conditions demand special measures 
being followed. The aeroplane is called upon to withstand 
heavy shocks, jars, and vibrations. It is imperative that the 
metal parts which need to be joined together should be so 
treated as to produce, to all intents and purposes, a solid piece, 
no matter how involved the design. That is to say, the tout 
ensemble, both in appearance and uniformity of strength and 
rigidity, should be precisely the same as if the piece were 
contrived from one solid piece of metal. This end is assured 
in a very effective manner by recourse to oxy-acetylene 
welding. 

This is highly exacting work, owing to the fine degree to 
which the temperature of the flame has to be adjusted and the 
extreme care which has to be observed to avoid burning the 
metal, the heat of the flame produced being so exceedingly 
intense. Moreover, many of the pieces which have to be 
joined are exasperatingly small, and this, as we can see for 
ourselves, is another realm in which feminine hands and 
temperament excel. The light, delicate touch of the woman, 
combined with her patience and ability to maintain the 
requisite degree of diligence and care, irrespective of repeti- 
tion, have enabled her to convert this into an essentially 

85 



All About Aircraft of To-Day 

feminine working sphere — one in which she need apprehend 
no competition from male labour. Before the war the sug- 
gestion that women should operate the oxy-acetylene welding 
jet, and that they would become proficient in the task, was 
regarded with extreme scepticism, if not point-blank ridicule ; 
but experience has proved that in this peculiar craft she has 
no equal. Withal she is quick, as experience at the 
National Aeroplane Factory (Crossley Motors, Limited) 
has convincingly demonstrated, while the percentage of 
rejected work, once proficiency is obtained, is so low 
as to be negligible. Feminine fingers are likewise found 
superior for splicing the wires introduced for bracing and re- 
inforcing the wings; while the women and girls have also 
proved their adaptability and peculiar capacity for carrying 
out many other apparently intricate and certainly wearying 
phases of craft identified with the manufacture of aeroplanes. 
In fact, the building of aeroplanes, or rather that part of the 
work involving the fabrication of the components, might be 
truly described as being pre-eminently a feminine occupation. 
Naturally, the preparation of the fabric for the wings 
comes within the feminine province, accustomed as the woman 
is to cutting-out and the operation of the sewing machine, 
which enters so largely into this part of the work. The linen 
is specially prepared, being of great strength with light 
weight. In the raw condition it weighs 4 oz. per square 
yard, and each square inch is able to sustain a strain of 90 lb. 
without tearing. The fabric is stretched over the wings and 
frames of other planes such as the fin and ailerons. It is not 
drawn too tightly, as a certain degree of shrinkage takes place 
during the subsequent doping and varnishing operations, im- 
parting to the planes the requisite drum-like tight and smooth 
surface. 

86 



The Construction of an Aeroplane 

We now pass into the dope room — perhaps the most criti- 
cal part of an aeroplane factory. .We are impressed by the 
special features incorporated both in its design and con- 
struction. In the first place it is imperative that ventilation 
shall be carried out along special lines. Although the dope 
now used is free from the objectionable features so charac- 
teristic of the early preparations to this end, it still throws 
off fumes which are injurious to the health of the workers. 
Being heavier than air it settles to the floor, and would wreak 
widespread havoc unless it were removed continuously and 
effectively. At this factory we observe the fumes are ex- 
hausted through the walls of the building into the outer air 
by means of electrically-driven propeller fans, set about five 
feet above the floor level, thereby preserving a satisfactory 
respirable atmosphere. 

The second requirement is in regard to temperature, which 
experience has shown should be maintained at from 70 to 75 
degrees Fahrenheit. The maintenance of the desired tem- 
perature is assured by means of twenty steam-heating ele- 
ments, the room in question being 282 feet in length by 40 feeC 
wide. Each fabric-covered part receives five coats of dope, 
and each coat is allowed to stand for sixty minutes to dry, 
so that the operation occupies five hours. By the time the 
doping operation has been completed the weight of each 
square yard of fabric has been increased from 4 to 7^ oz., 
the weight of the dope itself thus being 3^ oz. 

The next operation is the application of the final coat of 
pigmented varnish. The room in which this work is carried 
out demands ventilation and the maintenance of an equable 
temperature similar to that incidental to the dope room, but 
as no fumes are thrown off in this process it is only necessary 
to change the air within the room once every twenty minutes. 

8 7 



All About Aircraft of To-Day 

One process in this department arouses our attention. This 
is the varnishing of the small planes, such as ailerons, fins, 
elevators, and stabilisators, as well as rudder. Instead of the 
varnish being applied by hand with a brush, as in the case 
of the wings, power is employed. Each girl is armed with a 
pistol, from the stock of which extends a flexible pipe to the 
varnish supply reservoir. She points this pistol at the surface 
to be treated, presses the trigger, and the varnish is delivered 
in the form of a fine spray. By moving the pistol she can 
apply the varnish finely and evenly over the whole of the 
surface, assuring an adequate uniform coating. The finish 
obtained in this manner is superior to that obtained by even 
the most dexterously and skilfully handled brush, while, of 
course, the time occupied in carrying out the task is very 
materially shortened. 

In another part of this huge workshop the erection of the 
fuselage is proceeding contemporaneously with the fabrication 
of the wings. The girder-like hollow body is set upon trestles, 
the engine is lowered into place and bolted up to its bed 
plate. The petrol tank, the capacity of which ranges from 
60 gallons in the case of the DH9 to 200 gallons for its 
consort DH 10, is put in place, as well as the controls and 
joy-stick, or control-lever, and pilot's seat. The tail planes 
are brought forward to be erected while the fuselage is 
clothed with its outer thin sheathing of wood, after which 
painting and varnishing are taken in hand. Then follows 
the equipment of the dashboard with its various instruments. 
At this factory the wings are not attached to the fuselage, but 
being standardised, in common with all the other parts of the 
machine, there is no necessity to do so, inasmuch as they are 
certain to prove accurate and to bolt readily into place. Of 
course, if the practice were to deliver the machine by air they 



The Construction of an Aeroplane 

would be completed to the uttermost detail, but in a factory 
having an output such as that of the National Aeroplane 
Factory (Crossley Motors, Limited), such an arrangement 
would involve the maintenance of an extensive official staff, 
ready to carry out final tuning-up and to make the accept- 
ance trials on the spot. This might have been done* at this 
factory, because we observe that attached to the works is an 
extensive flying ground, but it has never been utilised 
except for the purpose of conducting trial flights with new 
machines. 

There is one feature of the aeroplane the manufacture of 
which we have not witnessed during our round of investiga- 
tion — the construction of the propeller. Its manufacture is 
not conducted at Heaton Chapel, for the simple reason that 
there are several firms throughout the country specialising in 
this work, which is a craft apart. However, a few words con- 
cerning the contemporary aeroplane propeller may not be out 
of place. It differs very widely from those used by the 
pioneers who blazed the trail of the air, although the funda- 
mental principle was elaborated in those early days, the ad- 
vantages being promptly recognised. It is built up of layers 
of wood, or laminations, after the same broad lines followed 
in the construction of the main spars, mahogany and walnut 
being the favoured woods; but these laminations are stepped, 
so that when gluing is completed the propeller has a certain 
semblance to its final form, the curve of the blade being 
roughly indicated. When the rough propeller is removed 
from the press some hours later it is subjected, to several 
operations in various machines, which work it down to its 
final form. It is then smoothed and sandpapered, finally 
being finished with varnish. The propeller boss is intro- 
duced and made fast. At various stages during manufacture 



All About Aircraft of To-Day 

balancing tests are made, the propeller being slipped upon a 
shaft and laid in the horizontal plane. Being mounted freely, 
unequal balancing would speedily assert itself by the heavier 
blade falling, bringing the propeller to the vertical position. 
It may be mentioned that the design of the curvature of the 
propeller blade varies according as to whether the aeroplane 
to which it is to be fitted is a pusher or tractor machine, the 
one type not being applicable to the other duty. 

Every phase of human endeavour possesses its individual 
romance and fascination, but that identified with the con- 
struction of an aeroplane, especially when conducted in 
accordance with the latest dictates of efficiency and organisa- 
tion in association with scientific factory planning, as is so 
powerfully exemplified at the Heaton Chapel Works of 
Crossley Motors, Limited, invests the craft with unusual dis- 
tinction. Such an establishment as we have been privileged 
to visit, and the more impressionistic features incidental to 
operation which are set down, serve to bring home the im- 
mense strides which have been made in the realm of dynamic 
flight during a decade. Finally, it serves to emphasise ver> 
conclusively what we, as a nation, can do when exigencies 
so compel. The claims of commerce in regard to aerial trans- 
portation have not attained the level which were demanded 
by military considerations. But if we can satisfy the one 
there is no reason to suppose we cannot meet the latter when 
the moment arises, possessed as we are of the men who are 
masters of craft and direction of applied knowledge and 
science in this distinctive field where organisation is invested 
with a peculiar and far-reaching significance. 



90 



CHAPTER VI 

"Safety First" in the Air 

" TS it safe? " This is the inevitable question asked by the 
■*■ timorous when extended the invitation to indulge in a 
trip through the air. It is a perfectly natural inquiry, and one 
which is not confined to movement by air, although in this 
direction it is probably animated by deeper misgivings. But 
movement by air stands upon a plane by itself, although, 
probably, equally apprehensive interrogation would attend 
any suggestion to take a trip under water by submarine. 

But the air is "something" which few can understand. 
Imagination does not carry them beyond the one fact which 
they know full well — it is indispensable to life. They regard 
it purely as food for the lungs. That space should be trans- 
formed into a highway of transportation is somewhat inscru- 
table, and they reflect upon the slender-looking lines of the 
aeroplane, although there is lesser trepidation manifested in 
regard to the airship. To a certain degree this is due to a 
certain familiarity with the lighter-than-air machine, inas- 
much as ballooning has reigned as a sport for over a century, 
and, what is decidedly striking, has been attended with 
remarkably few accidents. 

The hesitation manifested in regard to the aeroplane is 
undoubtedly psychological to an advanced degree. The 
mammoth airship, from its mere dimensions, conveys the 
impression of safety. The aeroplane seems so puny and 

9i 



All About Aircraft of To-Day 

fragile to battle against the forces of Nature — forces which, 
as everyone knows, are of an extremely destructive character 
at times. Greater confidence is reposed in the airship from 
the knowledge that if the worst should come to the worst, and 
the air should prove triumphant in a battle royal with the 
handiwork of ambitious man for supremacy, the airship need 
not necessarily encounter immediate disaster. It possesses 
the inherent capacity to float for some hours, the sport of the 
wind it is true, but there is presented the hope, remote though 
it may appear under certain conditions, of making a safe 
landing. 

With the aeroplane, on the other hand, there is little or 
nothing to inspire safety. Crashes are frequent; everything 
hinges upon the faithfulness of a tiny motor. If it goes 
wrong, or fuel should be exhausted, immediate descent is 
inevitable. The machine is invested with no innate capacity 
to hover- — to hang on to the air — while the possibility of a 
repair, if required, being executed during the brief period of 
descent is too slender to be considered seriously. There is 
a lack of stability, an absence of tangible support, an in- 
visible factor about the air, which prompt feelings of dubiety. 
The airman knows that the aeroplane is safe ; that should any- 
thing go wrong while aloft the chances are a thousand to one 
that he will make the land below in safety ; but it is not easy 
to communicate these sanguine thoughts to the uninitiated. 

One fatal mistake appears to prevail at our popular aero- 
dromes where joy-riding is encouraged. I myself have seen 
crashed machines left exposed in their tattered and broken 
condition for days together, to be observed by all who happen 
to be passing. The airman laughs at the spectacle of torn 
fabric, splintered wings, crushed undercarriage, and shat- 
tered engine. But the man-in-the-street views the wreck in a 

92 



"Safety First" in the Air 

totally different light. Upon our railways all evidence of a 
wreck is removed with every possible promptitude. Our 
shipping companies do not parade the wounds inflicted upon 
a ship after an inadvertent embrace with another vessel, or 
the wicked fangs of a rocky barrier. No effort is spared to 
conceal the injuries from view. Those who are responsible 
for the maintenance of travel and transportation by rail and 
sea have learned the wisdom of doing everything possible 
to prevent the perils incidental to these systems of movement 
being brought home to their patrons. A similar practice 
should be embraced in regard to the vessels of the air. A 
crashed aeroplane should be hauled behind closed doors of 
a hangar, covered or reduced to scrap and the junk heap with 
all speed. Its depressing effect is not confined to potential 
passengers along the aerial highway of joy-riders. The com- 
mercial man contemplating dispatch of goods by air is sud- 
denly confronted with the fact that they are likely to suffer 
injury during transit, to his financial and trading detriment ; 
while recommendations that mails should be carried by air 
are likelv to be received with vehement hostility by those who 
consider that the safety and positive delivery of their com- 
munications must not be jeopardised by any accident en 
route. 

"Safety First " is as imperative in the air as in every other 
sphere of endeavour. If anything, it is of accentuated sig- 
nificance, particularly during the contemporary period of 
education and enlightenment. Designers and constructors 
have appreciated this salient fact, and are unstinting in their 
endeavours to do all that human ingenuity can suggest to 
reduce the liability of accident through any inherent fault of 
the machine. The enterprising pioneers of progress are 
emphasising the "factor of safety," although it is a moot 

93 



All About Aircraft of To-Day 

point whether the average lay mind really understands the 
meaning of the term. The intimation that an aeroplane, as, 
for instance, the Vickers Vimy transport machine, has a 
factor of safety of five, in the light of existing slender 
familiarity with technical knowledge, does not convey the 
intimation that the machine is really built five times as 
strongly as is necessary to perform the designed duty, or, 
expressed in other words, that every part of the machine is 
capable of sustaining at least five times the strain which it 
ever will be called upon to bear before it will break. 

The designer plots, and the constructor carries into effect. 
To appreciate the significance of the lengths to which the 
builder is prepared to proceed to ensure the quality of his 
product it is necessary to pass behind the scenes, as it were, 
of the big factory. Certain and rigid specifications or stan- 
dards have been laid down with which materials must comply, 
but the enterprising manufacturer is not content to shelter 
himself behind this protection. Matters pertaining to the 
problem of the conquest of the air are in a state of flux, while 
knowledge of the materials used, and their behaviour under 
all and varying conditions, is decidedly meagre and imper- 
fect. Accordingly we find the laboratory dominating the 
factory in which aeroplane construction is conducted, and the 
verdict given within these privileged walls decides the final 
issue. 

This is certainly the case at Heaton Chapel, the construc- 
tional work incidental to which is described in detail in the 
preceding chapter. The laboratory or, perhaps, to describe 
it more accurately, the testing department, is equipped with 
the latest devices for testing all the materials entering into 
the fabrication of the modern heavier-than-air flying machine 
— wood, metal, fabric, glue and so forth. 

94 



"Safety First" in the Air 

We all know that ash is an exceedingly strong wood, that 
it possesses marked flexibility, and that it has been freely 
advocated as a first-class timber for aeroplane construction. 
But during the war period the supplies of this timber forth- 
coming were by no means adequate to satisfy the demand. To 
meet the deficiency it was decided to press Oregon pine into 
service. This wood is extensively used in shipbuilding, par- 
ticularly for masts and spars. It is strong, has a straight 
grain, and is strikingly free from knots. But there is one 
peculiarity concerning this timber. During the summer the 
growth forms thick layers of the sapwood or pith between the 
concentric rings forming the grain, the last-named thus being 
spaced somewhat widely apart. On the other hand, with the 
winter or spring growth, this pith is narrower, bringing the 
grain, which is finer, much closer. 

The pith is soft and, to a certain degree, resilient, being 
readily broken with the finger nail, but the grain itself is 
exceedingly dense and hard, a sharp pocket-knife failing to 
make any impression upon a sound piece of wood which has 
been well seasoned or conditioned. Accordingly it was de- 
creed that only the winter wood should be utilised for essential 
parts of the aeroplane where the maximum of strength was 
desired, and it was conceded to rank second to ash. 

But the technical mind is ever investigating. Therefore, 
at this factory, the experimental testing plant decides to make 
some individual tests to discover the relative values of the 
summer and spring growths of Oregon pine. Small sections 
of wood are taken, preferably pieces about four inches in 
length by about two inches in diameter. These specimens 
are shaved down near the centre, evenly on all four sides, 
leaving the middle portion an inch long by one inch wide and 
one inch deep. In this way a cubic inch, the unit, is obtained. 

95 



All About Aircraft of To-Day 

This is placed in the testing machine, which is then set in 
operation. Gradually the two jaws close together, and in so 
doing exert increasing pressure or crushing effect upon the 
specimen set between them. This pressure is exercised per- 
pendicularly in regard to the wood, that is, in the line of the 
grain, and is continued until the specimen collapses, the pres- 
sure at which failure occurs being recorded. 

The degree of pressure to which the Oregon pine speci- 
mens stood up before collapsing was somewhat illuminating. 
At the same time the resistance offered by the summer 
growth, which was declared to lack strength, was also 
striking. I was shown certain specimens where the cubic 
inch of softer wood had resisted over 5,000 lb. — nearly 
2 l / 2 tons. But this was not all. Sections of ash, the pre- 
eminently suitable wood for aeroplane construction, were 
similarly tested to yield comparative results, and it was some- 
what curious to remark that some of these specimens collapsed 
below the 5,000-lb. mark, and that, although accepted as 
stronger than Oregon pine, either winter or summer growth, 
it was even weaker than the summer-grown pine — the lowest 
in the scale. Of course, the sum of these experiments is not 
adequate to prove that the confidence reposed in ash is mis- 
placed. Far from it. At another laboratory diametrically 
opposite results may be recorded, but the experiments in 
question certainly do prove that our knowledge respecting the 
strength of timber is far from being complete, and that there 
is scope for us to modify many conclusions regarding the 
suitability of this or that wood for the building of aeroplanes. 

As a matter of fact, our knowledge concerning materials in 
relation to aero-dynamics is decidedly hazy. This is inevit- 
able. Flying, especially in so far as the heavier-than-air 
machine is concerned, is still only in its infancy. It has not 

96 ' 




COPPER DEPOSITING PLANT FOR WATER-JACKETS OF 
BEARDMORE AEROMOTORS 

The elaborate plant laid down by Crossley Motors, Limited, to build the jackets by 
electric deposition of copper. 




AEROPLANE-BUILDING AT THE CROSSLEY MOTOR WORKS 

All metal parts are joined by means of the oxy-acetylene blow-pipe, in the use of which 
girls are remarkably proficient. 



"Safety First" in the Air 

been harnessed for a sufficient length of time to the laboratory 
or even to practical application to enable any empirical laws 
and formulas to be established. The enterprising aeroplane 
builder takes nothing for granted. For instance, at the fac- 
tory in question, the materials were subjected to official 
inspection and test, and those which complied with the re- 
quirements were accepted. The onus was on the authorities, 
but the gentleman at the helm instructed frequent individual 
tests to be carried out and the results observed, not to offer 
conflict with the official decisions but to satisfy himself that 
the work was being carried out in accordance with the high 
standard of quality and perfection which he had laid down, 
and, incidentally, to provide him with valuable material to 
assist in his post-bellum industrial activity. The records of 
the experimental testing plant at Heaton Chapel are copious, 
but they are invaluable to the technical staff, and will assist 
very materially in the determination of critical factors asso- 
ciated with normal manufacturing operations. 

When the aeroplane is in flight it is "alive." No matter 
how steady the hand which is guiding it, how sensitive the 
control, it is like the rowing boat upon the placid sea. Air 
currents and other forces are responsible for this movement, 
which is not only of a vibratory character, the last-named 
being primarily due to the motor. Consequently, every 
member is at work the whole time. We know but little con- 
cerning either the magnitude or character of these constant 
and ever-varying compression and tension strains, or what 
cumulative effect they exert upon the machine as a whole. 
And being ignorant, it is our duty to find out ; to go in pur- 
suit of knowledge, the acquisition of more and more of which 
must contribute to greater perfection in construction. 

While we cannot accurately determine the extent of the 
h 97 



All About Aircraft of To-Day 

varying pressures upon wood, wires, and fabric while in the 
air, we certainly can learn something about the behaviour 
of wood through the experimental testing plant. At Heaton 
Chapel I saw another interesting machine at work upon a 
short length of wood — perhaps thirty inches long by one inch 
square. As received from the woodworker, who had reduced 
the piece selected by the tester to the required dimensions, 
it was thrust into the machine. It rested in two loops a few 
inches from the respective ends, while near the centre were 
two other loops attached to a lower member of the machine, 
working upwards and downwards upon a vertical screw. 

The machine was set in motion. Slowly, almost imper- 
ceptibly, the central arm descended, and in so doing pulled 
down the specimen of wood. The latter commenced to assume 
a bow shape, which increased as the arm continued its in- 
exorable descent. When the bow form became magnified, an 
ominous cracking was heard. The wood was feeling the 
full effect of the pressure brought to bear upon it, and was 
perilously approaching the point at which it would have to 
give way. Suddenly there was a report of rending and split- 
ting, and the fibres of the wood of the lower surface flew out. 
The stick had collapsed under the strain. The machine was 
stopped, the record of pressure was taken, together with the 
degree of deflection, and the pressure removed. The stick 
was taken out and examined. 

To the uninitiated such work may seem a waste of time. 
But what does it show? The piece of wood was supported 
only by the loops near the ends through which it was passed, 
while the central loops pulled it vertically downwards. 
Imagine this specimen to be part of an aeroplane, and the air 
to be taking the place of the descending screw-fed member. 
When a machine is travelling at high speed through the air, 

98 



"Safety First" in the Air 

and possibly against a heavy head wind, the pressure exerted 
by the air notches a considerable figure, so that it is not so 
absurd as it may seem to replace an invisible deflecting force 
by a mechanical force. In the testing machine the under side 
of the piece of wood is being subjected to tension ; its fibres 
are being stretched to the utmost of their elasticity, and that 
limit will be revealed in pounds per square inch. On the 
other hand, the upper surface is being submitted to com- 
pression, because its fibres are being pressed inwards in 
respect of their length. Similar tension and compression 
stresses are exerted upon every part of the aeroplane while 
it is in flight — wood, metal, wires, and fabric. It is the test- 
ing machine which has revealed much information concerning 
these two forces and their effects, about which our knowledge 
formerly was far from being sound. 

With this apparatus, it is also possible to test and deter- 
mine the strength of actual -component parts. For instance, 
a rib can be submitted to the ordeal. When the lever com- 
mences to exert its downward pull, which coincides with that 
of gravity, the tester can follow and measure the result of the 
forces and the general behaviour of the rib during the opera- 
tion. Similarly, sections of the laminated spars can be tested, 
and a check thus instituted, not only upon the work of gluing 
and pressing the layers together, but upon the adhesive pro- 
perties of the glue itself. In fact, there is no section of the 
projected machine in being which cannot be tried in this 
manner, and the work not only assists in the actual construc- 
tion of the machine, but reacts in the other direction — that 
is, back to the drawing office, since the results of tests provide 
material for the designer in the elaboration of his calculations. 

Metal work is also passed through its variety of tests. One 
machine is capable of reproducing the shocks and jars similar 

99 



All About Aircraft of To-Day 

to those experienced, for instance, in landing. A pin or bolt, 
such as is employed for securing the wings to the fuselage, 
can be taken and made fast in the jaws of the machine. To 
the end of a swinging rod is attached a ball of known weight. 
When quiescent, this rod and ball recall the familiar plumb 
line — they hang vertically. The pin or bolt to be tested is 
set in the jaws in such a way as to allow the ball to strike it, 
and to receive the full force of the blow. Above the machine 
is mounted a quadrant, the lever or recording hand moving 
over which is connected to the swinging weight. It is 
graduated, each calibration having a certain value. From the 
lower side of the machine projects a curved arm serving as a 
guide to the ball in its descent to assure movement through 
the vertical plane, and which is also furnished with a movable 
stop regulating the lift of the ball. 

The ball, resembling a pendulum, is moved a certain 
distance along its guide and then released. It swings down 
to strike the piece of metal which is fixed in the jaws a blow. 
Only a single blow is struck, and the arrangement is such 
that it is given fairly and squarely, and without rebound. 
The force of the blow or impact varies according to the height 
to which the ball is lifted and released. If moved only an 
inch or thereabouts, the resultant blow will be an almost in- 
distinguishable tap, while, on the other hand, if lifted to the 
full limit of its travel, the ensuing thwack will be decidedlv 
substantial. The pendulum is simply released; no impetus 
is imparted to it, so that its descent is really gravitational. 
By consulting the calibrated scale fitted to the top of the 
instrument, the operator can determine the force of the blow 
in pounds. 

The effects of the pounding thus administered are in- 
teresting to examine. A specimen cut from a rod of raw 

ioo 



"Safety First " in the Air 

material, or a manufactured part, may snap like a carrot, and 
under a single blow. On the other hand, it may bend 
or break in a splintered form. It all depends upon 
the character of the metal. The tests are interesting for 
the reason that the break sometimes occurs at the most un- 
expected point, thereby revealing a latent flaw in the metal, 
or that the working of the piece has been carried to too fine 
a point. As a rule the tests are conducted to destruction 
because, thereby, the technical mind not only learns whether 
or not the collapse occurs at the predetermined limit — thus 
establishing or upsetting calculations, but also ascertains 
precisely how much in excess of the anticipated strain, if any, 
the test piece withstands before collapse. 

No material entering into the building of the aeroplane 
escapes its test. This not only acts as a check upon the 
material and its manufactures, but serves to reassure the aero- 
plane builder that he is pursuing the correct lines; that his 
product is of the highest quality within the compass of human 
ingenuity, and that he is rendering the vehicle as safe and 
secure in its varied details as is within range of his pro- 
ducing capacity, by acting as a check upon the quality of the 
workmanship of his employees. The largest machine in the 
Crossley works is capable of applying tests up to twenty tons 
per square inch, which is far in excess of what any single 
part of an aeroplane is likely to be called upon to withstand 
when in service — that is, if handled with reasonable skill. 

At the Heaton Chapel works, the rule concerning the ex- 
amination and testing of materials utilised in the construction 
of the machines for the airmen is extremely rigid. And the 
fact that the tests are repetitive, conducted at all and every 
stage, many of a "surprise" nature from completed work, 
has contributed to the high standard of manufacturing ex- 



All About Aircraft of To-Day 

cellence which was established in the first instance. A 
reputation for super-excellence is not built up in a day; it is 
the carefully compiled assembled fabric of years. In so far 
as the Crossley organisation is concerned, it had established 
a level of super-quality in other fields of productivity — the 
gas-engine and the motor-car, and naturally it was expected 
that this standard of excellence should be manifested in con- 
nection with the building of aeroplanes. This in itself is a 
measure of protection to the airman ; is sufficient to instil 
a peculiar confidence. He knows the manufacturers will not 
let him down. It also serves to ensure the preservation of 
the quality of the raw material utilised. It is the inexorability 
of the experimental testing department, and the knowledge 
that it will ruthlessly expose any hurried or indifferently 
executed work, which enables a high, all-round standard of 
excellence to be maintained, and which has contributed to the 
manifestation of a peculiar and distinctive feeling of security 
and safety in the air, appealing as much to the man at the 
wheel, who carries heavy responsibilities upon his shoulders 
in the form of human life and limb, as to the passengers. 

There is one particular in which invaluable assistance 
has been extended by the authorities. At the official factory 
identified with the Royal Air Force, the standardisation of 
general supplies or accessories was carried to complete suc- 
cess. This standardisation of the small details, such as turn- 
buckles, nuts, and bolts — accessories which, in 1914, were 
of infinite variety, as well as difficult of acquisition in this 
country — eased the task of the aeroplane constructor very 
materially. Chaos and confusion of British and metric 
measurement were resolved into method and system. This 
also applied to many of the materials, in the production of 
which the manufacturers were compelled to conform. For 

102 



"Safety First" in the Air 

instance, the glues have to comply with a certain specifica- 
tion, as do also dopes and varnishes. Linen also has to be 
woven according to a standard, while wires and other inci- 
dentals are governed by some rigid rule or regulation. In 
this way the aeroplane builder has been relieved of many 
anxieties, although, in a factory such as I have described, 
rigid tests are conducted at every turn. They are indepen- 
dent, and conducted more elaborately than is possible to the 
authorities. 

This is as it should be. Aerial navigation has reached a 
precarious stage. Its future success depends essentially upon 
the appeal it makes to the general public, whether it be in 
the movement of passengers or freight. Both the ordinary 
traveller and commerce are in a hesitant mood. Extend un- 
compromising evidence that the aerial highway is as safe as 
road, rail, or sea, and it will be promptly accepted. And in 
this task of education everything must be subservient to 
"Safety First." 



103 



CHAPTER VII 
Some British Aeromotors of To-Day 

WHILE the design and manufacture of the inert body of 
the aeroplane has undergone striking perfection during 
the past few years, this work has been confined to minor de- 
tails. Substantially the machine itself is the same now as it 
was ten years ago. The one field in which real and far-reaching 
development has been recorded is in connection with the motor. 
This is the field in which the stress and exigencies of war 
exerted their most beneficial influence, because, in 1914, the 
engine constituted the weakest and most unreliable part of 
the whole. The concentration of thought and ingenuity upon 
this factor of propulsion brought about many revolutions in 
ideas and practice, and has contributed to the attainment of 
a remarkable degree of excellence and reliability, enabling 
the aviator to speed through the air at incredible velocities; 
far in excess of those reached by birds and insects, whose 
home is the air, and to reach altitudes which, a decade ago, 
appeared to be utterly beyond the reach of man. One has 
only to compare the aeromotor of to-day with that of 19 10 to 
grasp the immense forward strides which have been made. 
The former bears as much resemblance to the latter, no matter 
from what point of view it may be regarded, as does the 
contemporary express railway locomotive to the Rocket. 

As is well known, the type of prime-mover which has 
been universally adopted for the propulsion of the flying- 

104 



Some British Aeromotors of To-Day 

machine, both aeroplane and airship, is the high-speed ex- 
plosion motor, which brought about such a revolution in 
highway locomotion. The extension of the field of appli- 
cation for this engine from the highways and also seaways 
to the airways was logical, inasmuch as its conquests upon 
the land and water were a happy augury of success in the 
third field. The highest speeds recorded upon land, sea, and 
in the air have been attained by the aid of this engine. These 
wonderful achievements, in the three realms of travel, have 
been possible for the simple reason that this type of internal 
combustion engine presents the engineer with a source of 
energy attainable in high powers for really insignificant 
weights, a combination which, at the moment, has not been 
approached by any other type of prime-mover. Moreover, 
it possesses the additional advantage of being compact for 
the power developed, occupies relatively little space, and is 
easy and simple to handle or control. 

It has been developed essentially from the motor-car 
engine. Previous to the coming of aviation, engineers were 
striving to equip motor-cars — even boats — with engines of 
increasing powers, and were sparing no effort to reduce the 
weight factor in the consummation of their ambitions. Racing 
machines were fitted with engines which needed but little 
modification to fit them for application to the air, especially 
for the propulsion of the airship. Consequently, it is not 
surprising to learn that the latest achievement in motor- 
engine design, as applied to racing cars, constituted the real 
starting point for aerial development. 

It is only right to mention that this movement did not 
synchronise with the outbreak of war and its consequent de- 
rriand for aeroplanes. It had already commenced many years 
previously, but was pursued rather along erroneous and ding- 

105 



All About Aircraft of To-Day 

dong lines. Some of the pioneers sought to achieve their 
end by departing from accepted design and practice, devising 
weird motors which, while proving light in weight, failed 
to stand up to the rigours of work in the air. Either these 
pioneers were not content to accept the motor-car model as the 
starting point or standard for evolution, or they preferred to 
give full rein to their inventive brilliancy in the hope that 
they might eventually succeed in producing quite a different 
type of motor, and one essentially adapted to the air. 

Some of the pre-war departures in designs have survived, 
notably the radial, rotary and V types. Others were directly 
born of the war. The radial and rotary engines represent 
quite a reversal of conventional practice. Instead of the 
cylinders being set in a line along the crank-shaft they are 
disposed radially, like the spokes of a wheel. In the radial 
engine the cylinders are stationary, while in the rotary motor 
they revolve round the crank shaft. The Anzani is a typical 
example of the first or radial system, while the Gnome, Le 
Rhone, and Bentley motors are common expressions of the 
second or rotary principle. The rotary engine, while it has 
proved satisfactory for certain types of military aeroplanes, 
is scarcely likely to meet with widespread favour in the com- 
mercial field, although, during the opening stages of the 
new movement, they may have a certain vogue to absorb the 
stocks thereof which are available. 

These types of engine suffer under certain disabilities 
which, while of minor significance in military duty, are of 
far-reaching significance to commercial application. They 
are heavy in consumption of petrol and lubricating oil, are 
susceptible to ready derangement, requiring frequent over- 
haul owing to their construction being carried out along very 
light lines, while they offer higher head resistance than the 

1 06 



Some British Aeromotors of To-Day 

other types. Another shortcoming is the inability to produce 
them in relatively high-powered units. On the other hand, 
they have certain advantages. Being air cooled, the attendant 
gear constituting the water-cooling circulating system, includ- 
ing pump and radiator, as well as the water itself incidental 
to the quasi-motor-car engine, are eliminated. So an appre- 
ciable saving in weight is obtained. The principle of design 
also admits a lower weight per horse-power to be secured. 
But when advantages and disadvantages are carefully 
weighed, the former are not adequate to discount the latter. 
Consequently, both the radial and rotary motors will probably 
be retired into oblivion or attain only extremely limited appli- 
cation. As a matter of fact, it is doubtful whether the rotary 
engine would have survived to this day had it not been for 
the war, which, stimulating ingenuity, enabled certain im- 
provements to be effected, rendering the motor suitable for 
specific, though severely limited, military services. 

The "V," or Vee type, as it is more colloquially called, 
does not represent such a wide departure from motor-car 
practice. Indeed, this model made its appearance in one or 
two pre-war car models. The cylinders are stationary and 
set in line, but in two rows, upon a common crank shaft, at 
an angle of 60 to 90 degrees to one another — 30 to 45 
degrees on either side of the vertical. This allows twice 
the number of cylinders of given dimensions to be dis- 
posed in the same longitudinal space as would be required 
for a vertical engine of half the number of cylinders. Thus, 
instead of four or six cylinders of the latter, we are able to get 
eight or twelve of the former, each opposite pair of cylinders 
being connected to a single crank pin. The Vee type has 
met with pronounced favour, although it offers more head 
resistance than the vertical type, but its efficiency is so much 

107 



All About Aircraft of To-Day 

higher. The Hispano-Suiza, R.A.F. or "Raf," Renault, 
Rolls-Royce, and Sunbeam-Coatalen are probably the most 
notable and efficient motors following this cylinder arrange- 
ment. The vertical system is a direct application of con- 
ventional motor-car engine practice to the aeroplane. So far 
as this country is concerned, it has not been very extensively 
practised, although it stands high in favour in the United 
States. The Beardmore is the outstanding British expres- 
sion of the idea. 

The most recent development is the Double Vee arrange- 
ment. In this instance the cylinders are set in three rows, 
somewhat after the manner of the letter W or "VV" — 
hence the name — the central row being vertical and flanked 
on either side by a corresponding line of cylinders set at an 
angle of 40 degrees from the vertical. By this arrange- 
ment it is possible to accommodate an engine of eighteen 
cylinders in the same length of space as would be required 
for a vertical motor of six cylinders. The Napier engine 
follows this arrangement, and it has proved eminently satis- 
factory. The Vee, Double Vee, and vertical motors are water 
cooled, and although the introduction of the water-radiating 
system undoubtedly increases the weight per horse-power 
appreciably, this disadvantage is more than offset by the 
enhanced efficiency obtained, while the fuel and oil con- 
sumption is relatively low for the power developed. Engine 
speeds range from 1,250 to 2,100 revolutions per minute. In 
those instances where the revolutions are high, a reduction 
gear is introduced to reduce the propeller speed. Direct trans- 
mission at these speeds would be impracticable, and would 
lead to loss of propeller efficiency for the reason I have 
previously explained. 

While a variety of British engines were designed and 
108 



Some British Aeromotors of To-Day 

built to meet the requirements of war, many will not be com- 
mercialised, at least, not at the moment, although, of course, 
so long as stocks are available, they will doubtless be used 
to a greater or lesser degree. Detailed description of all 
these engines would require more space than is available, so 
I will confine myself to narrating the outstanding features of 
those motors typical of British designing and constructional 
ingenuity with which, for the time being, we are possibly 
more familiar. 

The Beardmore Aeromotor 

This engine, as already stated, belongs to the vertical 
classification, and arouses attention from the excellence of 
its design and workmanship manifested in its construction, 
while there are one or two features which are of more than 
passing interest. The 160-190 horse-power model has six 
separate cylinders of 142 millimetres bore by 175 millimetres 
stroke, and the 174 brake-horse-power is developed at normal 
speed — namely, 1,250 revolutions per minute. Weights have 
been reduced wherever possible by the utilisation of special 
metals, while the water-jackets, instead of being cast with 
the cylinders, as is usual, are distinct and built up by electro 
deposition of the copper, the process being broadly analo- 
gous to that followed in silver-electro plating. In this 
manner it is possible to secure a very pronounced saving in 
weight as well as a high degree of strength, the copper jacket 
being extremely thin, yet sufficiently stout to withstand the 
rough wear and hard usage incidental to aeroplane service. 

The valves are placed on top of each cylinder, and are 
automatically operated by a rocking arm, one arm serving 
both inlet and exhaust valves, the former being placed on 
one side and the latter upon the other side of the cylinder 
head. The tappets operating the valves are mounted at the 

109 



All About Aircraft of To-Day 

extremities of the rocking arm, which is connected upon the 
inlet side, to a vertical rod which extends downwards to 
engage with the camshaft. Thus the valves are mechanically 
operated in accordance with the universal aeroplane practice. 
The sparking-plugs are of the three-point type, extensive trial 
having demonstrated their superiority to the conventional 
two-point plug, while two plugs are fitted to each cylinder — 
on either side along the longitudinal line — for purposes of 
accessibility. Two carburetters are fitted to the engine, and 
are set on the inlet side, but they are coupled together to work 
in synchrony, and feed into a common water-jacketed inlet 
pipe, whereby the gas is led and distributed to the six 
cylinders. 

Ignition is by the high-tension magneto, and two separate 
magnetos are fitted. They are quite independent of each 
other, one being a plain, high-tension magneto, and the other 
a starting magneto. The latter combines a normal second 
magneto ignition for the motor, and, in addition, a hand- 
starting magneto is provided. The two magnetos are syn- 
chronised accurately, the maximum current generated by 
each flowing to the plug in the respective circuit, while the 
break in each occurs at the same instant. 

Another outstanding feature of this engine, and one which 
conduces to a saving in weight, is offered by the pistons. 
These are made of a specially tough steel, enabling the wall 
of the piston to be reduced to -^-inch in thickness. Being 
about as thick as a stout sheet of paper, extraordinary light- 
ness is secured; but, at the same time, although exceedingly 
tough steel is employed, care must be manifested in handling 
the piston when the occasion arises to dismantle the engine, 
otherwise its dead circular shape is likely to suffer deforma- 
tion. This, howevej, is readily remediable in the hands of a 



Some British Aeromotors of To-Day 

skilled mechanic without impairing the strength or true 
working of the piston in any way. Similar care, obviously, 
must be displayed in connection with the jacket, which, being 
of copper, and likewise extremely thin, is likely to suffer 
injury through careless or unskilled handling. Copper, as is 
well known, is very ductile, and, owing to the electric de- 
position system followed, the jacket is composed of the pure 
metal, without any alloy which might serve to stiffen it. 

By reason of the ingenuity manifested in the design and 
fabrication of this motor, the total weight of the engine has 
been brought down to 620 lb. in the dry condition — 3.56 
lb. per brake-horse-power. The petrol consumption is 
96 pints per hour, or .55 pint per brake-horse-power, and 
should not exceed .63 pint. Should it do so, an investigation 
is usually conducted to ascertain the reason, which is prob- 
ably found to be due to some minor mishap in the ignition 
or carburetter system, or to a leakage, any one of which, 
however, is capable of ready rectification. The lubricating 
oil consumption is 5 pints per hour. 

Travelling in the air differs widely from travelling along 
the high road in a motor-car. Under the first-named and 
normal conditions the engine is always working at full load, 
which is maintained in the same way as the engines of a 
trans-Atlantic liner, after once the open sea is reached, are 
kept at one speed throughout the journey, only undergoing 
modification to meet an emergency. In the air the Beardmore 
engine should not be run at more than 1,400 revolutions, in 
any circumstances, though the most efficient results will be 
achieved at 1,250 revolutions. If these conditions are fulfilled, 
a thorough examination of the engine should be made after 
150 hours' run, and complete dismantling and overhaul con- 
ducted at the end of 300 hours. 



All About Aircrait of To-Day 

The Beardmore engine made its bow in 191 1, and aroused 
attention during September of that year by establishing a 
new world's record for altitude. During the following month 
— October — it set up eight new records, three for speed, two 
for distance — 250 kilometres, or 156^ miles, with pilot and 
one passenger — and three for time, the best being two hours 
with pilot and passenger. During the year 1912 it created 
successive new records in regard to height, and also for 
vertical or climbing speed, while in October, 1913, it carried 
off the honours for duration of flight, with pilot and seven 
passengers, as well as three height records. This was the 
engine with which that indefatigable pioneer of the big aero- 
plane, Colonel S. F. Cody, gained the highest awards at the 
British Military Reliability Trials in August, 1912, against 
twenty-four aeroplanes representing ten different makes of 
engines — the pick of British, French, and German design. 
The motor fitted to this machine was of 120 horse-power. 
The Martinsyde monoplane, a standard two-seater, which 
secured second prize in the second aerial Derby, held in 1913, 
was also equipped with a 120 horse-power standard Beardmore 
aeromotor, and covered the course of approximately ninety- 
five miles at an average speed exceeding seventy-two miles 
per hour. It was with his biplane, driven by an engine of 
this type, which had been almost in everyday use for more 
than a year, that Colonel S. F. Cody won the £4,000 prize 
in the International section, and the first prize of £1,000 in 
the British section — ,£5,000 in all — in the aeroplane trials 
held by the British Government in 1912. Its record during 
the war was equally satisfactory, the consistent steady run- 
ning and reliability of the engine constituting its most 
conspicuous features. 



Some British Aeromotors of To-Day 

The Napier-Lion Aeromotor 

About the time the Armistice was signed, a new British 
aeromotor made its appearance, the design and construction 
of which aroused widespread attention. This is the Napier- 
Lion. While it did not emerge from the searching tests and 
exacting trials to which it was submitted in time to demon- 
strate its possibilities under actual war conditions, it was at 
once put through its paces in other directions, in which its 
performance was somewhat sensational. From its behaviour, 
it would seem as though this engine will have a distinct future 
in commercial operations. 

This aeromotor, designed and built by the firm identified 
with the construction of the Napier motor-car, is of 450 horse- 
power. It belongs to the Double Vee class, the twelve 
cylinders being set in three rows, or blocks of four each. 
The cylinders have a bore of $j4 inches, while the stroke is 
5^3 inches, the short stroke principle thus being embodied. 

In many essential details the engine differs markedl}' - from 
prevailing practice, which give it a distinct individuality. The 
cylinders follow the monobloc system, although each cylinder 
is separately water-jacketed to ensure the maximum thermal 
efficiency at all altitudes. The cylinders are made from steel 
forgings, and the water-jackets are of thin steel, pressed to 
required. shape from the sheet and vertically welded together, 
while they are held in position by being welded to flanges 
on the cylinders. The arrangement is such that the water 
space around the cylinder tapers slightly from top to bottom. 
Another departure from accepted aeromotor design is that the 
cylinder heads, instead of being separate, are cast in one 
block for the four cylinders forming the row, and this one 
piece is bolted down. This arrangement has many distinct 
1 113 



All About Aircraft of To-Day 

advantages, since by its removal access is instantly offered to 
the interior of the four cylinders and pistons, while the sixteen 
valves being carried in the single head are likewise easy of 
access. To save weight, this monobloc cylinder head-casting 
is made of aluminium. It also carries the camshafts, which 
act directly on the valve heads. Each cylinder is provided 
with four valves — two inlet and two exhaust respectively. The 
pistons, cast from a specific aluminium alloy, secure the maxi- 
mum of strength with the minimum of weight. 

The carburettors are set low at one end of the engine, and 
are provided with separate air intake pipes, the object of this 
arrangement being to eliminate the risk of the machine catch- 
ing fire. As there are three separate air intakes, a possible 
back-fire in one cylinder cannot bring the whole engine to a 
stop for the simple reason that, if one block should fire back 
in this way, the other two blocks will keep the engine running 
and thus draw in the flame. In so far as the heating of the 
carburettor is concerned, a somewhat unusual practice has 
been followed. The water-jackets are carried right down to 
and round the throttle barrels themselves. This arrange- 
ment reduces the risk of the carburettors freezing at low tem- 
peratures, such as are encountered in extremely high alti- 
tudes. The elimination of this danger is of far greater sig- 
nificance than may possibly be imagined, but to emphasise 
the character of this liability, it may be mentioned that on the 
occasion of one test to which this engine was subjected a 
temperature of —31 degrees Fahrenheit was reached. Two 
12-cylinder magnetos are fitted. 

The crank shaft is mounted on roller bearings. It is four- 
throw, the connecting rods of three cylinders, those in each 
transverse line, being mounted upon one web. Owing to the 
special lines of design followed in regard to the crank shaft, 

114 



Some British Aeromotors of To-Day 

the reduction gear runs very smoothly, the gearing being dis- 
posed with the propeller shaft over the crank shaft. This per- 
mits a propeller of the largest possible diameter to be fitted, 
enabling the highest possible efficiency to be obtained and the 
power of the engine to be fully utilised. Great attention has 
been devoted to details concerning lubrication. This is en- 
tirely automatic, and special arrangements have been incor- 
porated to prevent the manifestation of the evils attending 
excessive lubrication under adverse conditions, as, for 
instance, when the aeroplane is carrying out a long pre- 
cipitous dive, or is making a sustained steep climb. 

While the general arrangement of the engine may be 
gathered from the illustration opposite p. 128, this fails to 
bring home in a convincing manner the small size of the 
actual engine. In so far as the work of elaborating and build- 
ing an aeromotor is concerned, the engineer is compelled to 
remember that his creation must offer the minimum head 
resistance. To achieve this end satisfactorily he must com- 
press the utmost power within the very smallest space. These 
requirements are fully satisfied in the Napier-Lion engine, 
while it is also extremely light — another important factor. 
Weight has been brought down to 1.85 lb. per brake- 
horse-power at normal power, which includes the reduction 
gear; while it is approximately 2.5 lb. per brake-horse- 
power in running order with water in the jackets. The motor 
is economical in petrol and oil consumption, the former 
being about ^-pint per brake-horse-power-hour, while the 
latter is approximately 9 pints per hour for the whole 
engine. 

Although this aeromotor is light, the result of the general 
principle of design which has been followed, it is of rigid 
construction, compact, and runs with striking smoothness. 

"5 



All About Aircraft of To-Day 

The high standard of reliability which it has attained is due 
essentially to this smooth running, the special design evolved 
having permitted individual parts to be made thoroughly sub- 
stantial, and yet giving a very low weight for the whole 
engine. One feature that cannot fail to impress even the lay 
mind is the difficulty in determining from mere observation 
whether the engine is running or not. This is due to the 
circumstance that the whole of the moving parts are so com- 
pletely enclosed. 

Although this aeromotor was denied the opportunity to 
prove its worth under Service conditions, it speedily estab- 
lished its capabilities by setting up a new record for altitude. 
On January 2, 1919, Captain Lang, R.A.F., a well-known 
Australian motorist and explorer, accompanied by Lieutenant 
Blowes as observer, set out from Martlesham, near Ipswich, 
in an Airco two-seater biplane, fitted with the Napier-Lion 
450 horse-power aeromotor. This was practically the first 
public flight ever attempted with this engine, so that it 
virtually represented an experimental venture, although, of 
course, the results of the many severe tests through which it 
had been passed were known in privileged circles. 

Leaving the ground in a 35-mile wind, Captain Lang at 
once set the machine on a steep ascensional course, firmly 
resolved to establish a record for altitude if at all possible, 
and thus realising an ambition which twice previously had 
been denied him. It was no mean task to essav, seeing that 
it involved climbing to an altitude exceeding 25,800 feet, 
which was that attained by an Italian pilot in 1916, who by 
his achievement lowered the record set up by Lieutenant 
Oelrich in 1914, who reached 25,750 feet. But the Italian 
record was completely vanquished, because Captain Lang, 
according to the barograph record, climbed to a height of 

116 



Some British Aeromotors of To-Day 

30,500 feet (nearly six miles), a matter of 4,700 feet in excess 
of the Italian effort. But the daring pilot not only carried off 
the record in regard to altitude, but established a new one 
in point of time occupied in the ascent, inasmuch as the fore- 
going level was reached in 66 minutes 15 seconds, as com- 
pared with the 117 minutes occupied by the Italian aviator in 
climbing to 25,800 feet. Indeed, the rapidity with which the 
ascent was made was not the least remarkable feature of the 
daring undertaking, which offers striking testimony to the 
capabilities of the Napier-Lion aeromotor. The 25,000 feet 
level — only 800 feet below the Italian feat — was actually 
reached in the short period of 38 minutes 20 seconds. Thus 
the last lap of a little more than a mile occupied almost as 
much time as making the first five miles, due to the extreme 
rarefaction of the atmosphere, and this fact serves to bring 
home the important part which decreased density of the air 
plays in dynamic flight. 

The daring journey was not free from thrill and excite- 
ment. At 20,000 feet the mercury in the thermometer had 
sunk so low as to register 31^2 degrees of frost. At this point, 
owing to the difficulty experienced in breathing, Lieutenant 
Blowes was compelled to resort to the oxygen supply, which 
had been placed on board in a compressed form in cylinders. 
But vibration had broken the pipe connection with the 
cylinder, rendering it useless. He endeavoured to attract the 
attention of his companion at the wheel, but collapsed before 
he could pass the note which he had written to Captain Lang, 
who, unaware of the mishap to his observer, continued his 
upward journey. At 28,000 feet the pilot found his heating 
apparatus was not working efficiently ; while at 29,000 feet he, 
too, commenced to suffer distress from the rarefied air. How- 
ever, he stuck to the wheel and kept the aeroplane at the 

117 



All About Aircraft of To-Day 

climbing angle until he notched the 30,500 feet. Doubtless 
he would have continued his upward journey, but the limit 
of mechanical endurance had now been attained. There was 
insufficient air pressure to maintain the petrol feed to the en- 
gine. The joy-stick was pushed over, the nose of the machine 
was depressed, and the descent was commenced, being car- 
ried out slowly, so that the strain upon the physical systems 
of the aviators might not be unduly accentuated, although the 
pilot was still ignorant of the fact that his observer was un- 
conscious. At 10,000 feet, however, Lieutenant Blowes 
"came to." Upon reaching the ground both aviators were 
found to be suffering severely from the ordeal, which is not 
surprising, bearing in mind the terrific extremes to which 
their physical systems had been exposed within a brief period. 
The observer had to proceed to hospital to receive treatment, 
especially to his hand and toes, which were frozen, while the 
fingers and face of the pilot were also frost-bitten. 

Another noteworthy performance recorded by the Napier 
aeromotor, but in a different field, was the flight in April, 
1919, of the Airco aeroplane, driven thereby from Madrid to 
Seville and back. The round journey of 500 miles was covered 
in 265 minutes, flying time — an average of 1 1 13 miles an 
hour, or nearly two miles a minute. The outward flight was 
made in 130 minutes, while the return journey was covered in 
135 minutes. On May 5, 1919, this same aeroplane, which 
was in regular aerial service in Spain, flew from Madrid to 
Barcelona, approximately 300 miles, in 150 minutes. That 
the Napier aeromotor coincides with exacting Service require- 
ments was shown convincingly upon another occasion, when, 
with full military load, it attained a speed of 140 miles an 
hour at an altitude of 10,000 feet. 



118 



Some British Aeromotors of To-Day 

The Rolls-Royce Aeromotor 

One of the most familiar aeromotors to the community at 
large is undoubtedly the Rolls-Royce. Some idea of the part 
which it played, and was destined to play, in order to main- 
tain our supremacy in the air during the war, may be gathered 
from a few facts. Up to the signing of the Armistice, on 
November u, 1918, of 122 Handley-Page bombing machines 
supplied to the Royal Air Force, 113 were fitted with this 
aeromotor; while of 1,524 completed Bristol Fighters which 
had been delivered to the authorities, no fewer than 1,364 
were driven by Rolls-Royce engines. On Armistice Day the 
engines of this design in the possession of the British forces 
exceeded 1,000,000 horse-power. 

This aeromotor has been supplied in several powered 
units, each model having a distinctive name for purposes of 
ready identification, such as "Eagle," "Condor," and so on, 
but there is no difference in fundamental design or construc- 
tion, so that the description of one type applies to the others. 
For our purposes, therefore, I propose to describe the 
"Falcon," the 280 horse-power aeromotor, which, it is be- 
lieved, will be found adequate to meet the varied requirements 
of commerce, while it also constitutes a convenient unit. Of 
course, should commercial flying develop, there is no reason 
to doubt that more powerful units will be designed, but this 
is a matter for future decision. 

The engine is of the Vee water-cooled type, having twelve 
cylinders set in two rows at an angle of 60 degrees. The 
mechanical balance and turning movement are eminently 
perfect, and these factors, in combination with the ratio of 
weight to power, render it ideal for the varied exigencies of 
commerce. The long stroke is favoured, this being 5^ inches, 

119 



All About Aircraft of To-Day 

the bore is 4 inches, while the 280 normal horse-power is 
delivered at the normal engine speed of 2,250 revolutions per 
minute. The cylinders are made entirely of wrought steel, 
the design of which follows special lines, affording reliable 
and efficient construction, unmeasured attention having been 
given to their elaboration, as well as to all incidental gearing 
and parts, to assure reliability, strength and efficiency for the 
least weight possible. 

The motor is furnished with four carburettors, which are 
so arranged as to reduce the risk from fire to the absolute 
minimum. It is impossible for petrol to collect anywhere, 
internally or externally, in the engine, while the carburettors 
are so disposed as to drain away from the engine to a point 
outside the cowling in a manner which experience and know- 
ledge have demonstrated as being the most satisfactory. 
Ignition is in duplicate, there being two complete and inde- 
pendent magnetos, each of which fires the twelve cylinders. 

Ready accessibility is an outstanding feature of the motor, 
a point which has met with wide appreciation, second, per- 
haps, to its striking smoothness of running and reliability. 
The " Falcon " may be said to represent the embodiment of 
the ideas which experience has already demonstrated as being 
essential for commercial service. The requirements of peace 
differ very significantly from those dictated by the exigencies 
of war. For instance, there is not the necessity to rise to such 
high altitudes as were imperative under Service conditions. 
Consequently it was found incumbent to carry out certain 
modifications in design, such as facilities to allow the full 
horse-power to be used indefinitely at low altitudes, and to 
enable the machines to get away with heavy loads of fuel to 
secure a long radius of action so essential in commercial 
operations. 



Some British Aeromotors of To-Day 

Economy and efficiency of performance are the governing- 
factors in the commercial expansion of the aeromotor. There 
is no sentiment in business. It regards achievement in the 
cold calculating light of pounds, shillings, and pence. It 
was so with the railway, with the steamboat, and with the 
motor lorry, and it will be the same with the aeroplane and 
airship. Consequently the designer of the aeromotor is called 
upon to face a condition of affairs and perspective from which 
he has hitherto been absolved. 

Efficiency and economy do not lie wholly with the engine. 
These factors find their real expression at the propeller. An 
engine may leave nothing to be desired in point of low cost 
of running when considered individually, but if all this 
advantage is lost in propeller delivery it counts for nothing. 
Consequently fuel per horse-power at the propeller, or pro- 
peller-horse-power is the factor which now comes into the 
situation. To ensure the utmost fuel economy at the pro- 
peller it is necessary to have an efficient reduction gear 
system. The Rolls-Royce reduction gear of 56/95 ratio, 
giving a normal propeller speed of 1,327 revolutions per 
minute, is of the epicyclic type, the outstanding advantage of 
which, particularly in aerial duty, is that no pressure is 
imposed upon the crank shaft bearings due to reaction of the 
drive, while the direction of motor is not reversed. More- 
over, the gear only has to convert part of the horse-power. 
The Rolls-Royce system, even under commercial conditions, 
has already proved highly efficient and economical in fuel, 
which, coupled with reliability and smooth running, is un- 
doubtedly responsible for its extensive utilisation. 

While petrol of the highest grade is essential for the 
efficient running of the aeromotor, experience has demon- 
strated that the engine under question gives the most satis- 



All About Aircraft of To-Day 

factory all-round results with a mixed fuel, comprising petrol 
80 per cent., and benzole 20 per cent. This composite fuel 
gives slightly more power than straight petrol, but this is 
not the only advantage from the commercial point of view. 
It is less detonating in its combustion, and for this reason 
will make appeal in view of the relatively low altitudes at 
which commercial flight will be conducted for the most part. 
The oil lubricating system is distinctive. The quantity of 
oil carried in the engine itself is really negligible. Lubrica- 
tion is carried out upon lines whereby a single oil pump 
supplies oil under pressure to all the main bearings, while a 
single scavenger pump removes the oil accumulating in the 
crank-case to the oil tank. The oil consumption approximates 
6 pints per hour. The water circulating system is simple in 
character, and the quantity of water carried in the water- 
jackets of the cylinders, pipes, and pump is 2% gallons. 

The engine is provided with a hand-starting gear, which 
is somewhat reminiscent of the system employed in connec- 
tion with the motor-car. Cranking is done through a reduc- 
tion gear, having a 9 to 1 ratio, the induction pipes, of course, 
being primed with petrol before starting-up is attempted. 
The engine is then started by means of the hand magneto. 
Priming of the induction pipes is conducted from the pilot's 
seat by means of a special device embodying a hand-pump. 
It can be fixed at any convenient point, while, as the priming 
charge can be diverted from one set of engines to another 
through a change-over cock, only one apparatus need be 
carried for this duty. 

It is imperative that the engine speed should not exceed 
the normal, except in cases of emergency, when short spells, or 
"bursts," may be found unavoidable. Even then the engine 
speed should on no account be forced beyond 2,500 revolu- 



Some British Aeromotors of To-Day 

tions per minute. The total weight of the engine, in the dry 
condition and without reduction gear, is 630 lb., repre- 
senting 225 lb. per horse-power, while with reduction 
gear it is 686 lb., or 245 lb. per horse-power. The aero- 
motor can be utilised either as a tractor or pusher as 
desired, while the direction of rotation is anti-clockwise. In 
completing the design for the " Falcon " engine the creators 
studied the issue wholly from the commercial standpoint, 
which demands that a motor for such duty shall be reliable in 
running, safe, economical, of high consistent performance, 
durable, and comfortable, producing the minimum of vibra- 
tion even under maximum speed conditions. 

Many of the commercial planes now in service are 
equipped with this aeromotor, and are giving consistently 
high service. Up to the time of writing the only two aero- 
planes which have flown from England to India were fitted 
with Rolls-Royce engines; while the engines which were 
utilised in the aeroplanes delegated to the expeditious con- 
veyance of Ministers, officials and dispatches between London 
and Paris in connection with the framing of the Peace Treaty 
were engined with aeromotors of this design. 

But undoubtedly the crowning performance standing to 
the credit of the Rolls-Royce aeroplane motor is in connection 
with the direct Transatlantic flight of the Vickers-Vimy 
biplane from Newfoundland to Ireland. Upon this occasion 
the qualities of endurance and consistent running were em- 
phasised to no mean degree and completely vindicated the 
superiority of British aeromotor engineering, which possibly 
underwent a certain degree of criticism as the result of the 
previous failure when Hawker, in his attempt to complete the 
flight, was forced to the water after covering half the journey, 
to be picked up by a passing steamer. 

123 



All About Aircraft of To-Day 

It is questionable whether we really appreciate the im- 
mense strain which a flight of this character imposes upon 
such apparently insignificant mechanism as that of the 
modern aeromotor. We are disposed to take too much for 
granted, a feeling which is doubtless due to the knowledge 
that the machinery with which our modern ocean greyhounds 
are fitted pursue their uneventful movement after once being 
started, for days on end. But to compare the contemporary 
aeromotor with the marine steam engine is scarcely fair. The 
last-named is the product of decades of sustained study and 
continuous improvement, which have brought it to a high 
pitch of perfection, whereas the former is only in its infancy. 
Furthermore, a justifiable parallel cannot be drawn, because 
the conditions are so vastly dissimilar. A breakdown on the 
sea occasions nothing beyond a slight delay or continuance 
of the journey under reduced speed. A breakdown above the 
sea — in the air — means a forced descent unless the reduced 
speed attainable does not fall below that necessary to sustain 
the machine, when possibly the journey can be continued 
until succour comes in sight. 

The tax imposed upon the aeromotor, which is called upon 
to work for all it is worth against the collar the whole time 
it is aloft, is enormous. Some idea of this strain may be 
gathered from the anticipatory calculations which were made 
in relation to the flight over the 1,880 miles of the open 
Atlantic. If the aeroplane, fitted with twin engines such as 
those with which the successful Vickers-Vimy machine was 
equipped, had made the crossing in twenty hours — the esti- 
mated time— and had maintained an average of 1,800 revolu- 
tions each per minute, then each motor would have made 
2,160,000 revolutions during the journey— 4,320,000 revolu- 
tions for the two. Each piston, moving up and down the in- 

124 



Some British Aeromotors of To-Day 

terior of its cylinder, a travel of 5^ inches in each direction, 
would have covered 440 miles. Seeing that the two engines 
total 24 pistons, the total piston travel thereof would have 
been 10,560 miles — an immense journey for such diminutive 
pieces of steel. During the twenty hours the valves would 
have opened and closed no fewer than 51,840,000 times, while 
the magnetos would have delivered current intermittently to 
the plugs which would have produced 25,920,000 sparks for 
the ignition of the charges in each engine. 

We regard the mechanism of the modern aeromotor as 
delicate, but this performance conveys some idea of what it 
is able to do, while the actual speed achieved, namely, 1173^ 
miles per hour for 16 hours, less three minutes, to cover 1,880 
miles, brings home to one very vividly the remarkable capa- 
city possessed by such a diminutive prime-mover, and also 
offers striking testimony to the super-excellence of British 
engineering skill, workmanship, and manufacture. It may 
be pointed out that in reality the Transatlantic flight repre- 
sented a far heavier tax upon the aeromotor than it ever 
encountered upon the battlefield, notwithstanding the 
strenuous character of such work, inasmuch as the flights for 
the conduct of war were far shorter than are essential to 
commerce. 

The Sunbeam-Goatalen Aeromotor 

Another aeromotor which has a distinct claim upon the 
appreciation, not only of the British public, but of the world 
at large, is the Sunbeam-Coatalen, since this is the engine 
which has brought the negotiation of the Atlantic by airship 
within the bounds of possibility, thereby blazing the way of 
the air between the Old and New Worlds in true earnest. 
The designer of this aerial motor, Mr. Louis Coatalen, is a 

125 



All About Aircraft of To-Day 

pioneer blazer of the trail through the air in the fullest sense 
of the word, since his association with this field of activity 
dates from two or three years previous to the outbreak of war. 

I have previously mentioned that the aeromotor is the 
logical development of the engine identified with the motor- 
car, and this fact is demonstrated very convincingly in con- 
nection with the Sunbeam-Coatalen product. In 19 12 three 
Sunbeam racing cars, entered for the Coup d'Auto and the 
French Grand Prix, created a sensation. The first, second, 
and third places in the former race, open to vehicles not 
exceeding three litres engine capacity, were secured by the 
Sunbeams. The third, fourth, and fifth places in the un- 
limited class were also secured by the Sunbeams, which came 
first, second, and third in the Coup d'Auto class. Thus, the 
British car bore off in triumph the Coup d'Auto as well as the 
French Grand Prix team-prize for the open event, a feat 
unparalleled in British motor-racing circles. 

The racing Sunbeams were driven by 6-cylinder engines, 
and encouraged by this striking success upon the road, the 
designer, who had long been turning his thoughts to the Way 
of the Air, decided to pursue this line of investigation. He 
took his 6-cylinder racing-car engine which had demon- 
strated its perfection, reliability and endurance so dramati- 
cally as the foundation for his intentions. Upon this he 
modelled his first aeromotor, the cylinders of which were 
90 millimetres bore and the stroke 150 millimetres, while it 
developed 150 horse-power. 

The Vee type was embraced, the cylinders being set in two 
rows of four each, at an angle of 90 degrees to one another, 
that is, at 45 degrees on either side of the vertical. As stated, 
it was essentially a racing-car engine, but the designer con- 
sidered that it would be an adequate starting point for the 

126 



Some British Aeromotors of To-Day 

evolution of his train of thought. Being firmly resolved to 
conduct his investigation to a logical conclusion, despite the 
fact that aeronautical motor design was receiving little en- 
couragement in these islands at the time, he emulated pre- 
vailing Admiralty practice in the construction of fighting- 
ships, and introduced a class-naming system, the pioneer or 
initial effort being christened the "Crusader." 

The engine completed, and its bench-tests fulfilling expec- 
tations, the designer decided to try it in the air. A proved 
British aeroplane being somewhat elusive, he went to Paris 
to purchase a Maurice Farman biplane. This was dispatched 
to Brooklands and fitted with the aeromotor. An enterprising 
pilot, who had won his reputation in the motor-racing world, 
to wit "Jack," now Sir John, Alcock, of Transatlantic flight 
renown, expressed his readiness to go aloft with the machine, 
and did so, bringing home the indisputable fact that this 
country was competent to design and build aeroplane engines, 
and that in the Sunbeam engine there was at least one aero- 
motor of native creation adapted to aerial service. With this 
machine the pilot established what was an interesting record 
for those early days, namely, an aggregate flight of 150 
hours. 

While these experiments in the air were under way, the 
designer had observed how certain improvements might be 
advantageously incorporated, and accordingly evolved a new 
motor, which he named the "Zulu," the feature of which was 
the increase of the bore of the cylinders by 10 millimetres to 
100 millimetres, the "Crusader" length of stroke being pre- 
served. This did not meet with the creator's satisfaction, so 
was abandoned in favour of another larger and more powerful 
type, the "Mohawk." This was a 12-cylinder engine with 
reversion to the bore of the "Crusader" type, namely, 90 

127 



All About Aircraft of To-Day 

millimetres, and the same length of stroke. The cylinders 
were disposed in two rows, the angle of the V being reduced 
to 60 degrees. This engine developed 225 horse-power. It 
was subsequently installed in a racing car purchased by an 
American motor manufacturing company, and incidentally 
broke the world's one hour record at Brooklands by covering 
1079 miles in the 60 minutes. 

"Mohawk" did not satisfy the designer's demands, and 
forthwith underwent improvement, being fitted with cylinders 
of larger bore — similar in size and type to that of the " Zulu " 
— and was named "Ghurkha." In its improved form this 
engine developed 240 horse-power, and, being completed in 
October, 1914, may be said to represent the high-water mark 
of Sunbeam pre-war aeromotor evolution. 

Meantime the first Sunbeam aeroplane liad been making 
history, uneventful perhaps, but history for all that. After a 
brief sojourn at Brooklands it was transferred to the new 
aerodrome which had been established under private auspices 
at Shoreham, Sussex, where it continued its aerial career, 
enhancing its reputation for reliability and sustained perform- 
ance. When war broke out this aerodrome was requisitioned 
by the Admiralty, and in this way the further course of the 
first Sunbeam engined aeroplane became summarily inter- 
rupted. Whether it was utilised by the authorities, by whom 
it was acquired, is not quite clear, but the probability is that, 
in view of our aerial weakness at the time, it was taken by the 
R.N.A.S. to France to assist Lord French, according to the 
dispatches of whom the Royal Naval Air Service played an 
heroic part during the opening stages of the war. 

Hostilities may be said to have ushered in the second era 
of Sunbeam aeromotor history. In March, 1916, Mr. Coata- 
len, in response to the urgent desires of the authorities to 

128 




THE DRIVING FORCE BEHIND THE "BLIMP" 



The 100-horse-power " Dyak " engine built by the Sunbeam Motor Car Cor 
been installed in many of the smaller non-rigid airships. 



•5 ^%. 










THE AEROMOTOR SURPRISE OF 1919 

The "Napier" 12-cylinder, 450-horse-power engine. Many features new to aeroplane engine 

design have been incorporated in this motor. In running order, with water in jackets, it 

weighs approximately 2h lbs. per brake-horse-power. 



Some British Aeromotors of To-Day 

concentrate his skill in the evolution of a new type of engine, 
produced the "Nubian." Accumulated experience had sug- 
gested several modifications, which found expression in this 
latest model. One great difficulty demanded subjection. This 
was the complete expulsion of the exhaust gases from the 
cylinders to allow a full charge of fuel to enter for the succeed- 
ing power stroke. The "Nubian" class represented the first 
determined attempt to solve this problem. There was a re- 
version to the earliest practice with eight cylinders disposed 
in two rows set at 60 degrees angle, the cylinders having a 
bore of 95 millimetres, with a stroke of 135 millimetres, the 
stroke thus being shortened, while the horse-power developed 
was 155. But this model was slightly improved, the 
"Nubian" class, which was actually put into service, having 
the two rows of four cylinders forming the "V," placed at 
go degrees. In order to ensure more efficient scavenging of 
the burnt gases and a fuller fresh charge, four valves were 
fitted to each cylinder — two inlet and two exhaust respectively. 
Then came a new departure so far as Sunbeam-Coatalen 
practice was concerned. This was a 6-cylinder vertical engine, 
having a bore of no millimetres and a stroke of 160 milli- 
metres. It was furnished with four valves to each cylinder, 
two sets of magneto ignition, as well as compressed air starter, 
while gearing was introduced to drive the propeller. This 
was christened the "Amazon" class, but it was shortly fol- 
lowed by another model, having slight modifications in detail, 
such as a single magneto as well as air and hand starter. 
Otherwise there was no difference, the energy developed in 
both models being identical, namely, 170 horse-power. Never- 
theless, to distinguish the difference between the two they 
were named Amazon I. and Amazon II. respectively. As 
this class did not coincide with the steadily increasing 
J 129 



All About Aircraft of To-Day 

demand for power, a further vertical model was produced, the 
"Saracen" class. It was similar to the "Amazon" class 
except that the bore and stroke of the cylinders were respec- 
tively 122 and 160 millimetres, while the horse-power was 
higher, being 200. 

The official pressure laid upon the creative and producing 
resources of the Sunbeam organisation suffered no diminu- 
tion ; indeed, if anything, it became accentuated. The pace 
in matters pertaining to the development of the aeroplane 
grew hot at once. Its precise military significance became 
appreciated by all the belligerents. The race for larger and 
more powerful machines exercised a repercussive effect upon 
the motor designers. In this respect we forged ahead at a 
rare pace, but the pressure applied had the effect of defining 
broad lines of evolution and the pursuance of successful types 
through progressively larger and more powerful models. 

This tendency is very strikingly manifested in connection 
with the work conducted by Mr. Louis Coatalen, because 
among the wealth of ideas evolved and carried into effect by 
the Sunbeam Company may be found certain types which 
became the sires to large aeromotor families which achieved 
striking distinction. Thefe are three notable Sunbeam- 
Coatalen aeromotor families, namely, "Maori," "Cossack," 
and "Arab," but it is probably the first-named which has 
achieved the widest measure of fame. 

The father of the " Maori " family was Afridi, a 12-cylinder 
Vee engine, having a stroke of 92 millimetres and a bore of 
135 millimetres, developing 200 horse-power. It was con- 
verted to "Maori " with increase of cylinder bore to 100 milli- 
metres, the stroke being retained, 275 horse-power being 
developed. Four successive types of this class have been 
evolved up to the present, viz., I., II., III., and IV., and it 

130 



Some British Aeromotors of To-Day 

is Maori IV. which are installed in R34. Development in 
quest of power brought "Maniton," with cylinders of no and 
135 millimetres, bore and stroke respectively developing 300 
horse-power, and "Tartar" of similar power, but having 
single cylinders. 

"Maori" IV. is one of the most successful of the 
many Sunbeam aeromotors. Its performance in R33 and 
R34 has been eminently satisfactory. Throughout the whole 
of the trial runs, especially the long-distance flights over the 
North Sea and the Baltic respectively, the engines behaved in 
a highly efficient manner, and in one or two cases, when heavy 
weather was encountered, it is freely admitted that their 
smooth, reliable running undoubtedly proved the salvation 
of the vessels. 

In one North Sea flight a fog suddenly came on. The 
airship was unable to make land, and so the navigator, in his 
prudence, and confident of the staying power of his motors, 
decided to remain aloft, and owing to the persistence of the 
fog was kept cruising in the air for twenty-four hours. 

The "Cossack " family is so named after the parent, which 
was of 12 cylinders, of no and 160 millimetres, bore and 
stroke respectively developing 320 horse-power. It proved 
so successful as to become standardised in two classes, I. and 
II., which differed only in certain details. But it produced 
a still more powerful unit — Viking I. and Viking II. respec- 
tively, the latter being utilised to engine the 55 "C.M.B.s," 
for which it was eminently adapted. The Vikings are mon- 
sters of 18 cylinders, of the same dimensions as "Cossack," 
disposed in three rows, conforming to the "Double Vee" 
arrangement, and developing 450 horse-power. Subsequently 
came "Matabele," developing 400 horse-power. 

The founder of the third family was "Arab," an 8-cylinder 
131 



All About Aircraft of To-Day 

Vee engine, with a bore of 120 millimetres and a stroke of 130 
millimetres, developing 200 horse-power, a feature being three 
valves per cylinder. This was succeeded by "Kaffir," of 
12 cylinders set in three rows of four cylinders upon the 
double Vee principle. The cylinders were of 120 millimetres 
bore by 135 millimetres stroke, and the engines were fitted 
with two carburettors, one single and one double, as well 
as two 6-cylinder magnetos, while the propeller drive was 
direct. 

The development of power now became decidedly pro- 
nounced, because the "Kaffir" was followed by the "Malay " 
— a huge engine of 500 horse-power. This was of 20 cylin- 
ders, disposed in five rows of four each, forming a star, the 
bore and stroke being 120 and 130 millimetres respectively. 

The latest expression of aeromotor design by Mr. Louis 
Coatalen is the 12-cylinder "Sikh I." Here the number of 
valves per cylinder was increased to six. It is of the Vee 
type, with separately cast cylinders and four 12-cylinder 
magnetos. 

Up to the moment of writing this not only represents 
the greatest achievement of th^e Sunbeam creative organisation 
in regard to power per unit, but the most powerful and largest 
aircraft engine in the world, since it is rated to develop from 
800 to 900 horse-power. Contemporaneously with "Sikh I." 
another, "Sikh II., has been in hand. This is a different 
class of motor, being a 6-cylinder vertical engine, with the 
cylinders in a single row, but it will develop approximately 
400 horse-power, or about 70 horse-power per cylinder. 

Owing to the multitude of types which have issued from 
the Sunbeam works at Wolverhampton, which, as I have 
already mentioned, practically served as a huge practical 
national laboratory during the war, it is somewhat difficult to 

132 



THE 


DEVELOPMENT OF THE SUNBEAM AEROMOTOR. 




Type. 


Cylinders. 


Horse- 
Power. 




Name. 


NooJ 
Cyls. 


11 


Bore. 


Stroke 


Details. 












millimetres. 





Pre-war period. 



Crusader 
Zulu 
Mohawk 
Ghurka 



Nubian 
Amazon I. 
Amazon II. 

Saracen 
Afridi . 

Maori I. 
Maori II. 

Maori III. 

Maori IV. 

Cossack I. 
Cossack II. 

Viking I. 

Arab I. 

Arab II. 

Spartan 
Manitou 
Matabele I 
Matabele I 
Tartar 
Kaffir 
Malay . 
Bedouin 
Dyak . 
Sikh {12) 
Sikh (6) 



V 


8 


2 


90 


ISO 


150 ; 


V 


8 


3 


IOO 


150 


160 


V 


12 


2 


90 


150 


225 


V 


12 


2 


IOO 


I50 


240 



Side valves 



War period, August, 191 4 — November, 1918. 



8 
6 
6 


4 

4 
4 


6 


4 


12 


4 


12 


4 


12 


4 


12 


4 


12 


4 


12 


4 


12 


4 


18 


4 


8 


3 


8 


3 


12 


4 


12 


4 


12 


4 


12 


4 


12 


4 


12 


3 


20 


3 


8 


3 


6 


2 


12 


6 


6 


6 



135 

160 
160 

160 

135 

135 
135 

135 

135 

160 
160 

160 

130 
130 
135 
135 

160 

160 

135 
135 
130 
130 
130 
210 
210 



155 
170 
170 

200 
200 

275 
275 

275 

275 

320 
320 

45o 

200 

200 

200 

300 

400 

400 

300 

300 

500 

200 

100 

800 

400 



Standard type cyl. set 90 angle. 
2 mags., air starter, geared prop. 

1 mag., air and hand starter, geared 
prop. 

2 mags., air starter, geared prop. 

4 mags., inside exhaust valves, 

geared prop. 
4 mags., inside exhaust, geared prop. 
2 mags., 2 Remy's, inside exhaust, 

geared prop. 
2 mags., 2 Remy's, outside exhaust, 

geared prop. 
H.M.A. R33 and 34, direct drive, 

water-cooled exhaust, governor. 
2 mags., air starter, geared prop. 
4 mags., air and hand starter, geared 

prop. 
6 mags., air and hand starter, geared 

prop. 
2 mags., outside exhaust, geared 

prop. 
2 mags., outside exhaust, direct 

prop, 
single camshafts, air cooled, 2 mags., 

geared prop. 
2 mags., 2 Remy's, outside exhaust, 

geared prop. 
4 mags., air and hand starter, 

geared prop. 
2 mags., air and hand starter, 

direct prop. 
2 mags., single camshafts, geared 

prop. 
2 6-cyl. mags., 1 single carburettor, 

1 dual carburettor, direct prop. 
1 single and 2 dual carburettors, 

direct prop. 
Inverted " Arab," 2 mags., outside 

exhaust, direct prop, 
monobloc cyl., 1 mag., 1 Remy, 

direct prop. 
Single camshaft, 4-12 cyl. mags., 

separate cyls., geared prop. 
Single camshaft, 2-6 cyl. mags., 

separate cyls., geared prop. 



V=Vee type. 



[=■ Vertical type. W= Double Vee type. § 5-pointed star. 
133 



All About Aircraft of To-Day 

follow engine development lucidly and chronologically for 
the reason previously stated, and because motors were re- 
quired to satisfy every branch of the air service — aeroplanes, 
seaplanes, and airships, both rigid and non-rigid. But in 
order to demonstrate the inexorable demand which obtained 
for power — and more power — I have set out the accompanying 
table (see previous page), which is somewhat interesting, be- 
cause it concisely shows how the Sunbeam aeromotor has been 
evolved by Mr. Louis Coatalen from his amazingly successful 
racing-car engine. It is additionally remarkable because it 
represents virtually only eight years' work. 

In so far as record of performance is concerned, space will 
not permit a full recapitulation, because the Sunbeam aero- 
motor has served in so many parts of the world in all classes 
of flying machines. But one story may perhaps prove 
interesting. 

When the Belgian Military Expedition was organised 
to co-operate with the British forces in East Africa to drive 
the enemy from Lake Tanganyika, five Short seaplanes fitted 
with Sunbeam-Coatalen engines were dispatched to that 
inland sea. The machines were dismantled and laboriously 
transported in sections across country to the shores of the 
lake, where they were reassembled. The task of chasing the 
enemy from the lake proved arduous, but the seaplanes were 
always out and about, irrespective of weather, searching the 
sheet of water from end to end for signs of hostile vessels, 
and no losses were incurred in the task. Upon the fulfilment 
of this duty, there being no further work for the five seaplanes 
in Africa, they were once more dismantled, repacked, carried 
across country again to the coast, and sent home to be drafted 
with the engines which had seen such prolonged and hard 
service in Central Africa to Dunkirk. It was a striking testi- 

i34 



Some British Aeromotors of To-Day 

mony to the reliability, durability, serviceability, and work- 
manship of these seaplanes and their engines, and would 
probably prove somewhat difficult to equal during the war. 

But, of course, the outstanding triumph of the Sunbeam- 
Coatalen aeromotor is in connection with the trip made by 
R34 from England to New York and back in July, 1919, 
involving a round trip of 5,100 nautical miles. The outward 
journey to Mineola, Long Island, via Newfoundland, a dis- 
tance of 3,100 nautical miles, in 108 hours 12 minutes, not 
only constituted the longest flight accomplished by dirigible 
up to that time, but was sensational from the exasperating 
adverse conditions encountered. 

The R34 carries five aeromotors of the "Maori IV." class, 
each developing 285 horse-power. Throughout the first 70 
hours the vessel ran on only two of her five engines at a time, 
these giving her an average air speed of 38 knots. The petrol 
consumption was 4,900 gallons, which is equivalent to about 
1.6 gallon per nautical mile. Had better weather been en- 
countered not only would the journey have been covered in 
less time, but a more economical fuel showing would have 
been recorded. But the heavy head winds experienced on the 
last lap of the journey necessitated crowding on power, and 
even then she was only able to advance slowly. 

The return journey was made in shorter time. Whereas 
a somewhat circuitous route had been followed on the outward 
run to enable Newfoundland to be made, the homeward jaunt 
was direct from New York to Pulham, Norfolk, a distance of 
3,000 nautical miles. The return run served to emphasise the 
value of favourable weather and wind conditions upon speed 
in no uncertain manner, because the airship attained and 
maintained for a brief period a speed of 83 miles an hour on 
four engines. Unfortunately, about halfway across the 

i3S 



All About Aircraft of To-Day 

Atlantic one engine in the stern gondola had to be cut out 
owing to mishap, the airship now being dependent upon 
three engines, and speed was accordingly reduced. In view 
of the heavy gruelling to which the engines had been 
subjected on the outward run, considering that they had 
been in service for some time previously arid had made many 
notable long-distance and prolonged flights, the fact that 
the engines held up so well offered striking testimony to 
Sunbeam-Coatalen design and workmanship. 

The whole of the machinery, including the engines, 
clutches, intermediate shafts, reduction gear, propeller shafts 
and propellers, piping, radiators, oil and water tanks, etc., 
for R33 and R34 were manufactured and erected by the 
Sunbeam Company. The Maori IV. engines, designed 
essentially for airship propulsion, have 12 cylinders mounted 
in two rows of 6 cylinders each, in Vee form at an angle of 
60 degrees. The bore and stroke of the cylinders are respec- 
tively no and 135 millimetres, each cylinder having four 
overhead valves actuated by two cam-shafts to each row of 
cylinders, the cam-shaft drive being through a train of gears. 
The articulated system is adopted for the connecting rods, 
while a flywheel is fitted to the crank shaft. 

These engines are designed to run at 2,100 revolutions per 
minute, giving 275 brake-horse-power. Four carburettors are 
fitted, the feed being either gravity or pressure, while ignition 
is carried out by two 12-cylinder magnetos. The water-pump 
is of especially large dimensions, while a governor is fitted 
so that when the engine speed attains 2,500 revolutions per 
minute, or when the oil pressure falls below 20 lb. per 
square inch, the ignition is cut out, thus bringing the engine 
to a standstill for attention to either of these two details. 
Thus it will be seen that an excellent safety device is incor- 

136 



Some British Aeromotors of To-Day 

porated, set at two extreme limits, to avoid over-running the 
engine and to preserve it from disaster through lack of lubri- 
cation. Both hand and compressed air starting facilities are 
provided for setting the engine in motion. The exhaust pipes 
are fitted with a special arrangement for cooling the water. 
The flywheel carries one element of a friction clutch, 
driven therefrom by means of a series of composite leather 
and brass driving pieces, which are interposed to equalise the 
stresses on the teeth of the main wheels. The clutch itself is 
of the multiple disc type with a single central spring, and 
contains a series of ten phosphor bronze plates of special 
alloy to make frictional contact with ten similar plates of steel. 
The central spring is operated by a lever on the control 
station in connection with the engine in such a way that the 
pressure of the spring is balanced when driving, while the 
end load on the crank shaft is reduced to the minimum when 
declutching. From the clutch the power is transmitted by 
means of an intermediate shaft, fitted with a dog coupling, for 
permanent disengagement when necessary, to a gear-box 
fitted to the after-end of each gondola in which the motor is 
mounted. 

The gear-boxes are of three types. In the forward gondola 
the gear-box is a plain reduction type without reverse gear, 
similar in principle to that fitted to motor-cars, reducing the 
crank-shaft revolutions from 2,100 to 540 propeller revolu- 
tions per minute. The second gear-box is of reversing type, 
and is used on the wing gondolas, two of which are set in 
transverse line. The reduction is similar by means of sliding 
gears, and the direction of rotation of the propellers thus can 
be changed to admit driving astern or for manoeuvring pur- 
poses. The third gear-box is a special reduction type, in 
which two pinions are used, both engaging with one common 

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All About Aircraft of To-Day 

spur wheel attached to the propeller. This is fitted to the 
stern gondola, which is of larger dimensions than the others, 
because it carries two sets of engines driving one propeller. 
All gear-boxes are of similar detail design, the gear-wheels 
being of large diameter, and fitted with pumps to ensure a 
constant supply of lubrication to the teeth, bearings and other 
parts. The oil for the gear-boxes is carried in special small 
tanks, which are fitted close to the gear-boxes. 

The radiators are coupled up to the engines and to an 
aluminium tank by aluminium piping, the tank being set in 
the hull of the ship. Special arrangements are made to enable 
the effective cooling area of the radiator to be adjusted to suit 
the surrounding air and the speed of the engines. Branch 
pipes are supplied for heating when on the ground, and to 
supply cold water for stationary trials. The petrol services 
are connected to filters and petrol cocks on the gondolas, the 
filters and attendant gear being in duplicate so as to allow the 
engine to be switched over from one fuel feed to the other 
as desired for cleaning purposes, thereby dispensing with the 
necessity to stop the motor to conduct this operation. 

In addition to the usual lubrication fittings supplied with 
the engine there are additional special oil-cooling tanks 
placed outside the gondolas. These tanks are in direct com- 
munication with the oil circuit on the engines through a series 
of connections made with oil cocks fitted with indicating 
plates. Thus the quantity of oil passing through the coolers 
may be adjusted to meet the running and temperature con- 
ditions, and a fresh supply added to the oil in circulation from 
a tank which is mounted in the main structure of the ship. 
The oil circuit also incorporates a special filter, so arranged 
that one half of the filter is continually in use while the other 
section is being taken apart for cleaning purposes. 

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Some British Aeromotors of To-Day 

The trials which had to be fulfilled by the builders before 
the vessel was taken over were of an exacting character, in- 
cluding not only bench tests, but air-borne trials in the shed, 
and flight trials of eight hours' duration. The two-bladed 
propellers were also manufactured by the Sunbeam Company. 
These propellers, of which the largest has a tip-to-tip diameter 
of ig*4 feet, were all tested by the Admiralty upon a special 
rotary apparatus, which was erected for the purpose, before 
being installed upon the ships. While the company is re- 
sponsible for the design and construction of the whole of the 
propelling machinery and incidental gear, the general 
arrangement thereof was carried out upon data supplied by 
the Admiralty, which, as is well known, has been responsible 
for the construction of these huge dirigibles. 

H.M.A. R33 and R34, however, represent but a stride 
in the development of these craft. Larger and more power- 
fully-engined craft, having higher speeds, are under con- 
struction. Previous to the crossing of the Atlantic by R34 
the authorities were so satisfied with the performances of this 
vessel and her sister, R33, that contracts were placed for four 
lurther vessels. These later ships, it is anticipated, will not 
only be able to cross the Atlantic, but to venture to other and 
more remote parts of the world, involving longer trans-ocean 
passages. Indeed, it is not too much to hope that before 1920 
has passed regular services, both across the Atlantic and to 
distant parts of the Empire will have become instituted. 

The secret of successful long-distance flying such as has 
been recorded by the aid of the dirigible is essentially de- 
pendent upon the efficiency and reliability of the engines, 
and the Admiralty are evidently completely satisfied with the 
performance of the Sunbeam-Coatalen motors which have 
been designed and built specially for this work. 

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All About Aircraft of To-Day 

In view of the remarkable development of aerial naviga- 
tion by means of the dirigible as fostered by British enter- 
prise within the past two years, it is interesting to hark back 
a few decades. In the early days of aviation a solitary motor 
unit developing 20 horse-power was regarded as a somewhat 
daring undertaking. Captains Renard and Krebs, who really 
pioneered the Way of the Air by dirigible with La France 
in 1884 and 1885 relied upon electricity as their source of 
energy, the electric motor developing 9 horse-power. But it 
was Santos-Dumont who really ushered in the contemporary 
era of aerial navigation, and conclusively established the 
suitability of the petrol engine for this work with Santos 
Dumont No. 6. With this vessel, measuring about 100 feet 
in length, and which was of the non-rigid type, capable of 
carrying only one person — the pilot — the intrepid and inde- 
fatigable experimenter, on October 19, 1901, carried off the 
Deutsch prize of ,£4,000 offered for the first round or circular 
journey, by flying from St. Cloud, doubling the Eiffel Tower, 
and returning to his starting point, the journey occupying 
30 minutes. And the motor with which this historic dirigible 
was fitted developed only 16 horse-power ! Truly the develop- 
ment of the lighter-than-air flying machine may be described 
as rapid. It also serves to bring home to one the extraordinary 
development of the aeromotor. 



140 



CHAPTER VIII 
The Testing of an Aeromotor 

IT is better to be safe than sorry. This is the guiding maxim 
in regard to aeromotor construction. Everything depends 
upon the reliability and durability of the propelling machinery 
under ever-varying conditions. The engine must be free 
from mood and fickleness, and to assure this end being com- 
pletely fulfilled, every precaution which is humanly possible 
must be observed in its construction. The aeromotor, when 
aloft, is called upon to work under conditions which this 
type of engine experiences in no other field of its application. 
It has to run against the collar, or under full load the whole 
time it is in service. This particularly is the case in its 
application to the contemporary aeroplane. So far as the 
airship is concerned, the circumstance that the propelling 
equipment is divided into a certain number of individual 
units, coupled with the ability to travel at varying speeds 
owing to the vessel being dependent upon an extraneous 
force — hydrogen — for its ascensional effort, enables the engine 
units to be worked in shifts. Thus, upon the voyage of the 
H.M.A. R34 across the Atlantic, only three out of the four 
propelling units were working at one and the same time. 
This was distinctly advantageous, inasmuch as it enabled the 
desired cruising speed to be maintained with an ample reserve 
of power, to meet any sudden contingency. 

How long does it take to build an aeromotor ? I am not 
141 



All About Aircraft of To-Day 

referring to a new or experimental model which, as we all 
realise, is likely to occupy an inordinate length of time, see- 
ing that each part may demand finicking adjustment or finish, 
but to the commercialised model, all parts of which have been 
rigidly standardised to assure output. If the question were 
put to the average individual, his reply would undoubtedly 
be governed by memories of the producing capacity of a 
certain motor-manufacturing organisation, and the time in- 
volved would probably be assessed at so many hours — perhaps 
one or two days. But the reply would be hopelessly wide of the 
mark. The modern aeromotor is not a product of hours or days, 
but of weeks. From the moment the raw material is taken in 
hand, or a tool lifted, until the engine is accepted as being 
ready for the aeroplane, at least three months elapse. And 
it must be remembered that the mechanics are engaged upon 
the engine for the whole of this time. It seems incredible, 
but it is nevertheless true, and it is entirely due to determina- 
tion to honour fully the hoary precept that "it is better to 
be safe than sorry." 

The aeromotor is a masterpiece of mechanical construction. 
Every part, no matter how small or relatively insignificant 
it may appear, or the particular role it is designed to fulfil, 
must be as sound as the proverbial bell. Where close measure- 
ments have to be rigidly observed to the last ten-thousandth 
part of an inch, the slightest departure from that measure- 
ment is certain to bring about the rejection of the piece 
involved. The micrometer gauge is the autocrat of the engine- 
construction and erecting shop; every part is subservient to 
its reading. Certain parts may not demand absolute com- 
pliance with the rigid standard set down, and a certain margin 
either in excess of, or less than, the stated measurement— plus 
or minus, as it is termed— is permitted by the designer. Other 

142 



The Testing of an Aeromotor 

parts he stipulates shall be absolutely dead true, and it is 
this absence of any margin which calls for such wonderful 
precision in manufacture — precision which heat radiated from 
the hand in holding the part is likely to affect adversely. 

It is when the many thousand pieces have been truly 
assembled, when the final screw has been adjusted, that the 
engine is subjected to its most severe and exacting tests. The 
practice observed at the Wolverhampton works of the Sun- 
beam Company, the cradle in which the well-known aero- 
motors designed by Mr. Louis Coatalen are raised, is as 
relentless as could be conceived. Latent flaws in material 
which no amount of human foresight or examination could 
discover, the smallest errors in workmanship, deviation from 
the rigid specification set down in the preparation of the 
steels and alloys employed, and which may have escaped 
detection during the initial test of raw materials, are almost 
certain to be revealed in the course of the trials through which 
the assembled motor is submitted before installation in the 
aeroplane or airship. It would be fatal to act otherwise. So 
much depends upon the motor; it is the nerve upon which 
the lives of the aviator and his passengers depend. 

The first task is to run-in the engine ; to bed all its parts 
so that they may run smoothly and rhythmically. An 
engine, no matter how beautifully it may have been assem- 
bled, is likely to be a trifle stiff. In a way it resembles the 
athlete who has suspended training for a prolonged period, 
and who suffers upon resuming his rigorous preparations. 
The motor is rigged up on a bench and, as running-in is a 
more or less perfunctory task, it is driven on coal-gas, which 
is cheaper than petrol and quite as effective for the purpose. 
The gas is drawn from the main and fed direct to the cylin- 
derSj the carburettor being unnecessary. When the connec- 
ts 



All About Aircraft of To-Day 

tions have been made the engine is started up and is left to 
run unfettered for four hours. Possibly, now and again, the 
mechanic in charge may come round and liven the engine up 
by giving it a burst of speed for a few moments; but for the 
most part it is left to run at its own sweet will, or rather at 
the fixed speed, such examination as it is given meanwhile 
being rather to make certain that lubrication and water-cooling 
are proceeding normally. 

At the end of the four hours' run the engine is taken down 
and removed to the shops. Here it undergoes complete dis- 
mantling, every part being separated from its fellow. Each 
part is closely scrutinised to ascertain whether or not any latent 
defect in the metal has asserted itself, whether workmanship 
is at fault, or whether any individual piece gives any signs 
of succumbing to the strain imposed. The examination 
proving satisfactory, the motor is reassembled and taken to 
the testing bench. Now it is connected up to a petrol supply 
system, the carburettor and magneto being coupled up and 
adjusted, because the aeromotor has to undergo a further four 
hours' run, but under conditions broadly analogous to full 
load. Petrol is employed in this test because, among other 
things, it is necessary to discover whether the fuel consump- 
tion coincides with the calculations made by the designer. 
The engine, being connected up to the brake, enables other 
technical data, which it is incumbent to discover, to be forth- 
coming. Therefrom it will be possible to determine how far 
the specifications have been fulfilled. 

A second dissembling follows the completion of this four 
hours' run, every part again being closely examined, not only 
for defects which escaped the first running, but to ascertain 
whether any signs of discoloration of metal are apparent. 
If so, the part is rejected. Moreover, the gauge is brought 

144 







S2I 

t3 tl 






The Testing of an Aeromotor 

freely into play, the idea being to determine deflection of 
parts, if such has occurred as a result of the actual running 
under load. For the third time the motor is rebuilt to undergo 
a third test of four hours' hard running, followed by a fourth 
stripping and close inspection. 

Now comes the crucial test, which is as near actual aerial 
conditions as trials on the ground will permit. Incidentally, 
this is the trial which determines whether or not the aeromotor 
shall be permitted to go into the air as the vital nerve of the 
aeroplane. 

Outside the shops is a skeleton building in the fullest sense 
of the word, being nothing but two end walls supporting the 
roof. This building is subdivided into compartments by 
partitions, recalling nothing so much as an extemporised or 
farmyard cattle stall. Each compartment accommodates a 
wheeled chassis, the exact counterpart of the under-carriage 
of an aeroplane complete to the last detail — rubber-tyred 
wheels and springs or amortisseurs to absorb shocks, jars, 
and vibrations. The wheels are heavily scotched, and to make 
additionally sure they shall not move laterally, they are shored 
up to the hubs of the wheel axles with heavy blocks of wood. 
Finally, they are secured to the ground by anchors, the 
latter, however, being a trifle slack, to extend a certain free 
vertical movement to the chassis. On the body, which is 
small and squat, is an engine frame, designed to carry a 
motor and two-bladed propeller. 

The rear face of this chassis recalls to mind the footplate 
of a railway engine. Numerous dials and recording instru- 
ments connected to gauges are carried upon what is virtually 
a dashboard. On the left-hand side is a gas cylinder or 
bottle charged with compressed air. The footplate is just 
large enough to accommodate the tester and his assistant, 
k i4S 



All About Aircraft of To-Day 

while on either side are running boards to facilitate access to 
both sides of the engine while it is working. 

The motor, possibly of twelve or eighteen cylinders, scaling 
no more than 2^ lb. per horse-power, has been reassembled 
once more, erection being carried out to the last detail, in- 
cluding carburettor, magneto, oil-lubrication system, and 
compressed-air starting gear. It is picked up by a crane from 
the trolley upon which it has been brought to the testing 
station, is swung through the air and lowered into position 
upon the bedplate of the chassis. It is geared up to the 
propeller and bolted firmly in position by the testing mechanic 
and his assistant. All leads, pipes, and other gauges are 
connected up to the dashboard, including controls — throttle 
and ignition. The mechanic takes a final run over the engine 
to see that all is in order, and makes sure that the protecting 
bar has been lowered in front of the compartment to prevent 
an unsuspecting workman from walking into the stall to be 
caught by the invisible whirling propeller. While one is 
watching the final operations one catches sight of the vivid 
red notices staring from here, there, and elsewhere, warning 
wanderers to pass the testing station at a respectful distance 
to the rear. We who are following the preparations intently 
retire discreetly behind the friendly partition as the tester 
swings down on to his footplate, and takes a last look round 
to satisfy himself that all is clear. 

The tester turns the lever connecting the compressed-air 
cylinder with the starting gear of the engine. The motor 
instantly responds, as is evident from the slow, steady rotation 
of the propeller. At the same time he moves the throttle. 
A vicious bark cleaves the air, increasing in intensity, proving 
that the engine has been swung over to, and is picking up on, 
its natural fuel— petrol. The compressed-air supply is cut off, 

146 



The Testing of an Aeromotor 

and the engine is slowed down gradually until the propeller 
settles down to a lazy, half-hearted gait. The engine is just 
"ticking over," as the airman calls it, and is permitted to run 
at this pace for some minutes. "Warming her up," the tester 
describes this lazy running, and it is apt, because that is pre- 
cisely what is happening. 

But during this warming up the tester is on the alert. He 
is swarming over the engine, feeling her everywhere, trying 
all bolts to see that she is well and truly bedded down upon 
her frame, and trying all connections to see that they are 
tight. If anything should be slack it would be revealed with 
dramatic suddenness a few minutes later. 

Satisfied that all is well, the tester regains his station. He 
shouts a warning to us to place the thin partition well between 
ourselves and the engine. We have scarcely done so when the 
low purring of the engine gives place to a nerve-racking roar, 
as of a thousand machine-guns firing at their hardest. We 
peer timorously through friendly chinks in the partition. The 
tester has switched forward the control and the ignition levers, 
and the engine appears to have become endowed with savage 
life. Long ribbons of flame burst from the exhausts, while 
the din is terrifying. Of the engine scarcely anything can be 
seen ; she is wreathed in fire and smoke of burnt petrol gases 
and oil. The propeller itself is invisible. There is only a 
faint filmy shadow, crescent in shape, and apparently stand- 
ing on one of its horns. It is that cast by the rapidly re- 
volving blades of the propeller, which is now approaching its 
maximum speed. The roar increases, but we appear to have lost 
all sense of sound. The brain has been numbed by the roar. 
We see the tester and his colleague crouching down behind 
the dashboard, eyes glued to the gauges, and hands on 
controls. The spectacle is terrifying. The engine now being 

i47 



All About Aircraft of To-Day 

"all out," the propeller is exerting such a pull on the chassis 
as to cause the footplate to rear high into the air. It is strain- 
ing and tugging at its chains anchoring it to Mother Earth, 
and we reflect upon the precaution of such a strong, restrain- 
ing leash, otherwise the frame, if it did not actually mount 
into the air, would lurch forward, to trundle like a winged 
duck over the ground until the propeller blades were pulled 
up short by the earth, to fly in pieces in all directions. The 
kick and jump upon the footplate is so vicious that we wonder 
how the tester and his assistant can possibly keep a foothold. 

As the dancing, lurching, and rolling continue we 
hurriedly reflect. The aeromotor is built to make 2,500 revo- 
lutions a minute. A hazy picture can be formed of the strains 
which are being imposed upon the slender-looking moving 
parts, and how the spider-like piston rods are racing up and 
down their cylinders at a speed so fast as to defy observation 
by the human eye; how the valves are popping up and down 
in such rapid succession as to appear to be stationary; how 
the sparks are literally flying from the plugs in response to 
the contacts established by the magneto; and how the petrol 
is being sucked up in a huge stream to be ignited, the gas, 
after fulfilling its work in small charges, rushing with terrific 
force in the form of spent flame from the exhausts. 

Reflection undermines discretion, and so, inadvertently, 
we push our heads round the corner of the partition. The 
next moment we repent of our folly, for it seems as if our eyes 
have been wrenched from our heads. If we are intrepid we 
thrust out an arm, to experience instant intense pain, as if the 
limb had been torn from the shoulder. However, the ex- 
perience has conveyed a lesson. It has taught us something 
of the terrific blast of air created by the propeller of an aero- 
plane rotating at full speed in a confined space. Toss a post 

148 



The Testing of an Aeromotor 

card into the air-stream and away it goes, scurrying over the 
buildings, impelled by the artificial gale. Stroll round to the 
front of the stall to lean upon the protective cross-bar guarding 
the propeller. There is no air-blast here, but a powerful 
sucking action, the propeller striving to draw us into its 
embrace. Then we commence to realise, somewhat vaguely 
perhaps, why it is an aeroplane can fly. Surely such a force 
as is experienced would be able to pull a ton or more through 
the air with but little effort. 

The roar dies down, although it is scarcely realised at first. 
The chassis sinks back upon its wheels as if loath tc part with 
its sense of speed and power. But the test has not been com- 
pleted. After a short rest, or rather a spell of "ticking over," 
the while the tester runs over the engine to see that everything 
is O.K., the controls are once more moved, and the motor 
again is brought to life. Now the tester indulges in a form 
of harnessed aerobatics. He knows full well, when the aero- 
plane gets aloft, that the machine will be subjected to a weird 
variety of stunts to which the engine will need to respond. 
So the tester strives to reproduce these evolutions upon the 
ground. He has tamed the engine ; it is now as willow in his 
hands, answering freely to every movement he makes. He 
rattles away at the controls, moving them forward and back- 
ward as if frenziedly working a Morse transmitter. This 
moment the engine is tearing and roaring at the "all out" ; the 
next it is slowed down to almost a dead stop. Perhaps it is 
cut out altogether, only to be swung forward to its maximum 
in one sweep — a "burst." To and fro the throttle is swung, 
and the chassis dances, jumps, twists and turns in a frantic 
manner, in sympathy with the power exerted. The jolts and 
jars imparted to the engine seem to be sufficient to shatter it 
to pieces, but the aeromotor is designed to withstand just 

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All About Aircraft of To-Day 

those strains. After all they are no worse and very little dif- 
ferent from what they will have to withstand when landing 
or "taxying." We marvel at the propeller being able to with- 
stand such violent oscillations of speed, but the balance of 
the engine is much more impressive. We realise how beauti- 
fully it has been designed and made to the uttermost detail, 
how extremely sensitive it is, and how remarkably responsive 
to every variation of control. If there were any error in the 
correct proportioning or balancing of the parts it would be 
revealed speedily. Faulty balance would be attended with 
erratic turning movement of the crank shaft, which would be 
communicated to the propeller. The latter would experience 
the full brunt of the defect, because here the defect is dis- 
tinctly magnified. So much so that, if the eccentricity upon 
the part of the engine be very marked, the blades of the air- 
screw will snap like carrots. This is the test which alone can 
reveal these latent defects of the motor. Successful "stunt- 
ing " on the testing chassis proves that the aeromotor can be 
trusted in the air. 

For four hours the aeromotor is called upon to withstand 
these remarkable and devastating evolutions. At the end of 
this period it is stopped, released from the chassis, re-trans- 
ferred by the crane to the trolley, and hurried back to the 
workshops. Again it is relentlessly torn to pieces to have every 
component part critically examined, only more searchingly, 
if such be at all possible, than upon the three previous occa- 
sions. Approval being extended, the engine is once more 
reassembled and passed for service; it may now be installed 
in the aeroplane or airship. 

After such a remarkable gruelling, four successive dissec- 
tions and four re-erections, one wonders how an aeromotor can 
possibly fail in the air. Survival of the tests imposed would 

150 



The Testing of an Aeromotor 

seem to render it able to withstand anything and everything. 
As a matter of fact an aeromotor very rarely gives out through 
any inherent defect while in the air. Such an eventuality can 
nearly always be traced to some contributory cause or the fail- 
ure of an accessory. Hawker's Rolls-Royce engine gave out 
during his trans-Atlantic flight through a piece of solder be- 
coming detached, under excessive vibration, from the radiator 
and finding its way into the water circulation system. A few 
specks of dust will block the carburettor jet. The platinum 
tips of the magneto wear and disturb the regularity of the 
make-and-break . The engine is over-lubricated or fails to 
receive as much oil as it requires. There are a hundred and 
one possible mishaps to the auxiliaries which are quite capable 
of upsetting the smooth and designed working of the engine, 
but it is very rarely that the latter itself develops a defect. Of 
course, now and again a component part will collapse even 
after standing up to all tests, possibly because the metal of 
which it is composed has reached the limit of its endurance, 
and becoming tired gives way. But these are factors beyond 
human foresight and ingenuity. 

At times the designer, even after the foregoing tests have 
been made, will wander among his aeromotors and instruct 
this, that, or some other engine, selected haphazard, to be 
put upon the testing chassis once more, and be given long spells 
of hard running at full speed for an aggregate of 150 hours 
or more. Occasionally he will even request one to be put up 
to be run to destruction ; that is, run until it is brought to a 
full stop from the collapse of some component part. But now- 
adays, owing to the excellence of the materials employed, the 
precision and care with which the component parts are 
fashioned, and the care and skill with which they are assem- 
bled, tests to destruction are a wearying process. The man is 

I5 1 



All About Aircraft of To-Day 

likely to tire long before the motor goes to pieces. No matter 
from what point of view the aeromotor may be considered, it 
must be conceded as being one of the most beautifully de- 
signed and fashioned pieces of mechanism yet evolved by 
man. 

In view of the attainment of such a high degree of excel- 
lence and perfection, one naturally is disposed to wonder what 
the cost of such an engine may be. This is a difficult question 
to answer ; it is affected by so many factors. Power, number 
of cylinders, and other points affect the issue, but it may be 
safely asserted that the contemporary aeromotor may be said 
to vary in cost from ^1,200 to ;£ 1,600 and upwards. The 
cost of the engine alone is likely to react against the aeroplane 
ever becoming a cheap machine. It is an engine designed 
for a special and perilous duty ; one into which the question 
of cost cannot as yet be permitted to enter. Every considera- 
tion must be sacrificed to absolute reliability, durability, and 
endurance under every and any conceivable condition. 



CHAPTER IX 

An Airship in the Making 

r F A HE stately passing overhead of a mighty dirigible; the 
■*■ easy grace with which it sweeps to the right or left, up or 
down, according to the movement of its helm, never fail to 
exercise a profound fascination. It stirs the emotions to a 
degree never approached by the aeroplane, even in the days 
when flying was young, while prolonged acquaintance with 
the spectacle does not appear to stale its novelty. In these 
islands, perhaps, such an attitude of sustained interest is to 
be expected, the big airship being of comparatively recent 
date; but the circumstance that familiarity does not appear 
to breed indifference is proved by the excitement with which 
such aerial craft are regarded in those countries where they 
have been in daily use for many years past, as for instance 
Germany. There the flight of a Zeppelin is always followed 
with keen enthusiasm, while dense crowds attend the ascents 
and descents. 

Why the dirigible should prove such an extraordinarily 
powerful lodestone is not difficult to explain. That such a 
huge creation, challenging an Atlantic liner in length, should 
be brought under such complete and easy control, to move 
whither man desires in the vast aerial ocean, constitutes a 
monumental triumph for the ever-conquering forces of har- 
nessed science. The effect wrought upon the lay mind is 
undoubtedly psychological. The aeroplane, even when of 

'S3 



All About Aircratt of To-Day 

relatively large dimensions for such dynamic craft, is as the 
gnat in appearance. It lacks immensity. It appears to be 
endowed with the curious capacity to dodge the hostile forces 
of Nature, its diminutive size and high speed doubtless fos- 
tering this illusion, whereas, as a matter of fact, it really takes 
advantage of these adverse influences to achieve its success. 
On the other hand, the dirigible, from its huge dimensions, 
always seems to convey the impression of deliberately court- 
ing the antagonism of Nature, and to invite her blind forces 
to do their worst. To the lay mind, fully conversant with 
the power of the wind and the devastation it is able to wreck 
when thoroughly roused, the ability to contrive a monster 
craft able to overcome those forces is regarded with unfeigned 
wonder. 

This feeling is further prompted by the knowledge that in 
carrying out his conquest ambitious man is torn between 
divers conflicting forces. We know that the ascensional effort 
or capacity of the dirigible to float in the air is due to recourse 
to an agent lighter than the air itself. We are also fully aware 
that the vessel, from its proportions, must necessarily repre- 
sent an imposing weight, and that consequently a spirited 
struggle between lift and weight must be constantly waged. 
We are similarly fortified with the knowledge that to over- 
come the resistance of the air the dirigible must be equipped 
with an adequate propelling effort, and that this must be 
decidedly superior to the force of the wind, otherwise a 
straight course could never be maintained. Finally, we are 
cognisant of the fact that in moving forward the airship must 
encounter intense resistance from the air, and that here again 
another contest between propelling effort and wind resistance 
must be waged. Consequently, fully reflecting upon the 
conditions which prevail, and which would seem to be so over- 

i54 



An Airship in the Making 

whelming in their cumulative effect, one is naturally disposed 
to ask, " How is it done ? Why is such complete victory over 
the air possible ? " 

The answer to these obvious inquiries constitutes a fas- 
cinating romance of Britain's endeavour. As a nation she may 
have started late in the day to achieve the decisive conquest 
of the air by means of the big airship, but, it is significant to 
remark, in the belated effort which she put forth she has been 
able to out-distance her competitors. At this moment Britain 
possesses a larger and more imposing airship fleet than all 
the other nations put together. She has been able to reap 
where the foreign pioneers did sow; she has been in the 
position to profit from their mistakes. 

Airship construction, particularly of the monster rigids 
such as is typified by the " R " class, designed for service 
duty, is a phase of craft distinctly individual. The manu- 
facture of aeroplanes may be assumed by a firm completely 
ignorant of the work at a moment's notice but not so the 
dirigible. The essential requirements are so peculiar and so 
difficult to fulfil. In the first place a Zeppelin — the term is 
used in the distinctive sense, and applying to the monster 
rigid dirigible — aircraft construction establishment cannot be 
planted in any spot. Selection of site must be conducted with 
as much care and skill as that attending discovery of a new 
shipyard, while an imposing area of territory must be roped 
in for the purpose. The area secured must be of a level 
character, while the surrounding country must be of such a 
nature as to facilitate the low altitude manoeuvring of the craft, 
as well as affording her ample room in which to get away or 
to make harbour. Local meteorological conditions have also to 
be studied closely, since obviously it would be suicidal to 
establish a Zeppelin yard upon a bleak, windswept plateau. 



All About Aircraft of To-Day 

Once the site has been found, the plotting and laying out ot 
the requisite buildings and plant require to be conducted with 
careful deliberation. The many problems identified with the 
task may be gathered from the circumstance that, although 
three or four firms are engaged in the construction of these 
huge craft in this country, there is only one yard in the whole 
of these islands which was intentionally selected and 
equipped with plant wholly and exclusively for the con- 
struction of these vessels, which is completely self-contained, 
even to generation of hydrogen, and which was found to be 
so peculiarly efficient and adapted to the task as to lead the 
authorities to discuss its acquisition for the country. 

When it was realised, from the trend of war, that it would 
be absolutely necessary for Britain to have an imposing 
homogeneous fleet of mammoth dirigibles in being, the 
problem arose as to how we might become possessed of this 
additional fighting unit upon the requisite scale within the 
minimum of time. Certain firms, from the vastness of their 
plants, elaborate organisations, and comprehensive character 
of their manufacturing operations, offered to assist the Govern- 
ment, and their co-operation was accepted. In each instance, 
however, the work was attacked somewhat in the light of 
a side line, one which might be abandoned at a moment's 
notice without imperilling the existence of the firms concerned. 

But there was one firm whose activities have been identi- 
fied with aeronautics for many years, and who had been 
studying the Zeppelin problem along distinctive lines. The 
principals and their technicians had elaborated certain ideas 
and proposals, but lack of facilities militated against their 
being fulfilled. The firm thereupon approached the Govern- 
ment, explained its intentions, and suggested that a "yard" 
devoted wholly and exclusively to the production of these 

156 



An Airship in the Making 

huge craft should be established. The suggestion was 
accepted, and thereupon the firm in question searched the 
country high and low for a suitable site. Appreciable time 
was occupied in the fulfilment of this preliminary, and, as a 
result of careful deliberation, it was found that there was only 
one feasible centre in the country where such a yard might 
be laid out to the utmost advantage from every point of view. 
This was at Cardington, within easy reach of the market-town 
at Bedford, but which, at that time, was but a dot upon the 
map. The authorities acquiesced in the selection of the site, 
thereupon necessary constructional work was put in hand. 

The enterprising firm in question was that of Messrs. 
Short Brothers, Limited, a well-known family of aeronauts, 
whose activities had long been associated with the manu- 
facture of balloons, and, during later years, with the seaplane 
bearing their name, which has become an accepted unit of 
the Navy. The airship yard which they laid out at Car- 
dington is undoubtedly the finest and best equipped in the 
world. It is doubtful whether even the Zeppelio interests in 
Germany can point to such an excellently and beautifully 
equipped organisation. It is self-contained in the fullest 
sense of the word, and might very appositely be described as 
a miniature Portsmouth or Devonport dockyard, only devoted 
to the needs of the naval dreadnoughts of the air. 

Certainly it would be difficult to find a more suitable site 
than that offered at Cardington. It lies in the centre of the 
broad-floored Great Ouse valley, in one of the most pic- 
turesque stretches of rural England. The country is fairly 
wooded, as is only to be expected in such an agricultural 
country, although the actual site selected for the "yard" is 
strikingly open. Consequently, it offers all that elbow-room 
which is so vital to the easy and safe manoeuvring of these 

i57 



All About Aircraft of To-Day 

craft, while the facilities for getting away quickly and easily, 
as well as safe and prompt return, no matter in what direction 
the wind may be blowing, leave nothing to be desired. The 
valley itself is rimmed on either hand by a distant low ridge 
of hills which serve as an excellent natural breakwind. The 
buildings, extensive in character, have been laid out along 
accepted scientific factory planning principles, enabling work 
incidental to the fabrication of all and every part, from the 
largest to the smallest, to be conducted to the highest degree 
of efficiency, while adequate space is provided both for the 
erection of the huge craft and their accommodation when 
completed, pending acceptance trials, when, of course, they 
are drafted to their appointed stations. By the time the 
equipment of the yard was finished approximately ,£500,000 
had been expended, and some idea of the constructional faci- 
lities which have been provided may be gathered from the 
fact that the works are able to produce four monster craft a 
year, and afford employment for 4,000 men and women. 

It is not until one has come to close quarters with the 
Cardington airship construction yard that one is able to 
realise fully the immense tract of ground which is essential 
for the conduct of such work. But it may be brought home 
very convincingly by reference to one item — the dock in 
which the ships are built and moored. Obviously, this must 
be adequate to receive the largest vessel, and at the same time 
allow extensions to be made to keep pace with the develop- 
ment in the dimensions of such craft. The Cardington dock 
will carry a 700-footer with ease. But the provision of the 
dock does not complete the scheme. The vessel has to be 
manoeuvred outside this shelter after being brought out or 
before being taken into the dock. At least twice as much 
space is required outside the shed as within it. But more 

158 



An Airship in the Making 

than this has to be assured. The dock is double-ended ; that 
is to say, it can be opened at either end, because the airship 
must always be manoeuvred nose to the wind. Consequently, 
she must always be manoeuvred while on the ground upon the 
most favourable approach to the dock. In these circum- 
stances, therefore, it will be seen that while the dock itself 
may measure say 800 feet in length, an area of ground of 
equal length must be provided at either end thereof, so that 
the dock space really represents a continuous length of 2,400 
feet, or nearly half a mile. When we get the 1,200 and 1,500 
feet airships, which we are assured will be at no distant date, 
the walk from the outer end of one approach through the dock 
to the extremity of the other approach will be a constitutional 
indeed, seeing that it will be approximately one mile, the 
actual length of each approach being somewhat longer than 
that of the dock itself. 

To grasp fully the lay-out of a Zeppelin dock, it is neces- 
sary to refer to the illustration facing page 176. The actual 
dock itself is represented by the shed proper, while there is an 
approach at either end. We will suppose that the building 
runs due north and south. The airship is coming in from her 
voyage, and is approaching the dock. The wind is blowing 
from the north. The dirigible manoeuvres until she has 
brought her nose dead on to the wind, and is within reach of 
the approach on the south side of the dock, the doors of 
which are opened in readiness to receive her. The engines 
are kept running at sufficient speed to offset the wind, so 
that she remains poised in the air. The landing ropes are 
dropped and are caught up by the landing crew. Slowly the 
airship is brought to earth and is warped on to the approach. 
Once she touches the ground she is being held in relatively 
still air, because the shed itself acts as a windbreak or screen 

159 



All About Aircraft of To-Day 

against the wind blowing from the north. So the airship 
can be worked into her shed without danger from the wind 
being incurred. If the wind be blowing from the south, she 
would be landed on the approach, on the northern side of the 
dock, and so secure the advantage of the still air lying on the 
lee side or north end of the dock. 

But the wind may be blowing across the landing ground — 
from east to west, or vice versa. In either event the dock 
building, as it runs north and south, cannot extend any pro- 
tection against the wind. But this condition is fully met. On 
the windward side of the approach is built a massive wooden 
screen or windbreak, identical in length and height with the 
dimensions of the airship. The other approach has a similar 
screen, but on the opposite side. Consequently, if an easterly 
wind be blowing at the time of landing, the airship would 
make for the one approach, and when brought to earth would 
be completely sheltered from the side wind by the screen, 
allowing warping into dock to be carried out without 
difficulty. In the event of the wind blowing from the west, 
she would favour the other approach, to obtain the protection 
offered by the screen. 

In describing the lay-out of the dock and its approaches, 
together with the influence of the wind upon landing, I have 
purposely selected the simplest form of winds, i.e. those blow- 
ing directly end-on or at right-angles to the dock. Diagonal 
winds complicate the situation to an appreciable degree, and 
sometimes render the selection of most suitable approach 
somewhat difficult : but in actual commercial practice it will 
probably be very rare for a ship to go into dock, certainly 
not after each voyage, but only for overhaul. In the latter 
event it would generally be possible to take full advantage of 
a favourable wind. But, if open mooring be practised, as is 

160 




Sow view of the met 



skeleton, showing how the longitudina 
and connected to form the rounded nose. 



girders are shaped 




Photos, by courtesy of Me 



Completing the stern, showing the portable stage whereby the workmen are given 

command of the vessel at different working levels. This illustration shows work in 

progress upon the elevators. 

A BRITISH DIRIGIBLE IN THE MAKING" 



An Airship in the Making 

advocated, and this be provided in close proximity to the 
dock, then the area of territory which will be required will 
need to be still further increased. I have purposely described 
the docking facilities at length to emphasise the relatively 
large expanse of territory which must be acquired for the 
establishment of a Zeppelin construction yard. It is scarcely 
possible to have too much elbow-room. Should the dock be 
distinct from the erecting covered-in slip, then still more 
ground will be indispensable. Zeppelin was brought face to 
face with these docking difficulties in connection with his 
work, but he sought to obviate them by utilising a floating 
dock upon Lake Constance, moored at one end, which could 
be swung round to the most favourable position according 
to the wind. But in this country we have no suitable inland 
sheet of water of sufficient size to permit the adoption of this 
system. In any event, a floating dock would not completely 
meet the situation. The building dock must be established 
on dry land, contiguous to the workshops, and must be pro- 
vided with adequate landing facilities to permit the vessel to 
be moved in and out during her preliminary trials, it being 
only advisable to transfer her to the possibly distant floating 
dock when the necessity of being close to the workshops no 
longer obtains. 

But the dock, while representing the largest individual 
building in a monster dirigible "yard," is not the only 
example of a big work in this connection. All the buildings 
have to be of apparently abnormal dimensions, that is, com- 
pared with the facilities requisite for similar work of other 
industrial undertakings, from the simple fact that all the 
integral or component parts of the airship are of relatively 
large dimensions. Consequently, there is a spaciousness 
about the airship factory which is not to be found in any 
l 161 



All About Aircraft of To-Day 

other realm of endeavour, with the solitary exception of the 
shipyard. This is not surprising, because the building of an 
airship and an ocean liner have much in common. Many of 
the integral parts of a steamship are of impressive dimensions, 
requiring liberal space for their movement. A similar state 
of things is encountered in the aircraft building establishment. 
The monster dirigible may be briefly described as a fabri- 
cation of aluminium alloy girders, wooden beams, wire, and 
fabric. In the skeleton form it appears to be an exceedingly 
slender assembly of metal, wood, and wire, one and all of 
which have been reduced to the lightest possible proportions. 
It absolutely fails to impress one with that wonderful degree 
of strength and massivity which it possesses in its final form. 
When the hull of the Mauretania was sent down the launch- 
ing ways it represented a dead weight of 16,800 tons, 
and she is 790 feet long This is equal to about 21^ tons for 
each foot of her length. H.M.A. R32, built at Cardington, 
is 615 feet over all, and when she left her building slip she 
weighed 30^ tons, which is equivalent, for each foot of her 
'length, to approximately no lbs! Surely the limit of 
strength with lightness must have been attained. 

How is it possible to secure such a degree of strength as 
is required to battle against a high wind for such an insig- 
nificant weight? To obtain a convincing answer to this 
interrogation it is necessary to pass behind the scenes; to 
follow the fabrication of the parts at close quarters ; to venture 
on to the scaffold where assembly takes place. It is also 
requisite to observe the shape of the hull, seeing that the 
design adopted favours the utilisation of extremely light parts 
by reducing the resistance offered to the air to the minimum. 

In profile the dirigible presents an approximate stream 
line. The nose is conical, or fish-headed, in shape, the 

162 



An Airship in the Making 

central portion is a parallel, while the stern has a tapered 
form, terminating virtually in a pencil point. Externally the 
body is not truly circular in section, but is polygonal, the 
polygon having twenty sides or faces. The whole of the 
framework is built up on the triangular girder system, which 
really explains why the structure, while admittedly so light, 
has yet such pronounced strength. The system upon which 
the girders themselves are built also contributes to the degree 
of lightness attained, a factor which is accentuated by the 
use of an exceedingly light, but tough, aluminium-alloy 
having a high tensile strain. 

The alloy is prepared upon the spot, the precise propor- 
tion of the aluminium and other constituents having been 
determined by the chemists in the laboratory. The mixed 
molten metal is poured into moulds, and when cool presents 
slabs about 30 by 15 inches, by 1% to 2 inches in thickness. 
It is now submitted to a prolonged and intricate manu- 
facturing process, involving repeated heating in furnaces, the 
temperature of which is critically controlled by delicate and 
extremely sensitive scientific thermometers, and passage 
through heavy rolling machines. In this manner the texture 
of the alloy undergoes a startling change, the successive pro- 
cesses knitting the molecules of metal more and more tightly 
together, and at the same time rolling the slabs out into big 
sheets. 

By the time the rolling and heating have been completed, 
the cumbrous, dull-looking, squat slab of metal has been 
transformed into a large sheet, having the lustre of alu- 
minium, resistant to oxidation, and although no thicker than 
a visiting card, possessed of the toughness and strength of 
high tensile steel. Despite its thinness, the metal refuses to 
bend, except under great strain, whereas a sheet of aluminium 

163 



All About Aircraft of To-Day 

of equal thickness would be as flexible as cardboard. But 
though remarkably stiff and tough it is far from being brittle, 
and will withstand appreciable twisting and doubling before 
breaking. 

The sheets are cut into narrow strips of varying dimen- 
sions. The wider strips are passed through a machine which 

transforms them into channels of wide i i -section, while the 

narrower and thinner strips are passed through presses which 
stamp them out into small, specially shaped lengths of a few 
inches. 

The smaller pieces are stamped out by the million, a 
whole battery of machines, operated by girls, being kept at 
this work from morning to night. These small pieces form 
the -bracing or lacing of the triangular girders. After being 
pressed to shape they are passed through drilling machines 
to receive small holes, jigs being utilised to facilitate and 
expedite the task, as well as to bring the respective holes 
precisely in the designed places to ensure that accuracy of 
fit which is so vital. 

The assembling of the girder then proceeds, and this is 
work which is also carried out by girls, the character of the 
task being eminently adapted ;o small and nimble fingers. 
The channel-piece, about ten feet in length, is placed in a 
jig, and the cross-lacing pieces secured thereto. In the case 
of the airship every part is riveted up, whereas, with the aero- 
plane, as related elsewhere, similar work is welded by means 
of the oxy-acetylene flame. 

As may be imagined, the manufacture of the triangular 
girders for the dirigible is intricate, and requires to be con- 
ducted with extreme skill, especially in screwing the nuts 
right home ; but practice has enabled the girls to carry out 
this work with amazing speed and dexterity. When each side 

164 



An Airship in the Making 

of the triangle has been laced in this manner, the three faces 
are bolted together to complete the triangular girder, which is 
equilateral in section A' 

In the assembled girder form, although the integral parts 
are of such slim dimensions, the semblance of strength be- 
comes apparent. To satisfy one's-self upon this point, it is 
only necessary to rest the ends of a io-feet length of complete 
girder upon two stools and to sit upon the girder in the centre. 
One may turn the scale at 200 lbs., and may jump and jolt as 
much as one pleases, but the girder will give no perceptible 
sign of deflection. Yet that completed girder can be picked 
up and balanced by the little finger ! 

When one learns that it weighs scarcely 10 lbs — somewhat 
less than 1 lb. per foot — one is amazed at its enormous 
degree of strength. It is then that one commences to realise 
why it is the dirigible possesses such marvellous strength as 
to be able to drive its way against a 40-mile wind without 
buckling up concertina fashion. Why, the whole length of 
'a continuous longitudinal girder of this design, although 615 
feet in length, worked into the hull of R32, weighs only about 
480 lbs. ! 

The construction dock recalls nothing so much as a ship- 
yard in which an ocean greyhound is gradually being 
fashioned. From the roof to the ground represents a fall of 
200 feet. Loftiness in the building is essential, because the 
maximum diameter of the R32, which was built in these 
shops, is 655^ feet, while that of her consort R37, which was 
on the stocks at the time of my visit, is even greater. Ample 
head-room is essential for a further reason. When the vessel 
is complete and ready for her trials, she rides at her moorings 
at a higher level than is the case when resting on the slip, 
while roof space is necessary to facilitate free manoeuvring 

165 



All About Aircraft of To-Day 

within the dock, otherwise the outer covering of fabric might 
receive damage during the operation. 

Running from end to end of the shop, and a few feet below 
the ridge of the roof, is a narrow overhead platform where the 
more clear-headed workmen find a perilous foothold for carry- 
ing out erecting work upon the top of the airship. The side 
scaffolding is mobile, comprising staging, mounted on trolley 
wheels, allowing the men to work at varying levels to a 
point well above the diameter of the ship. Another erecting 
stage is so formed as to straddle the vessel's back, so that 
any point upon the upper half may be reached. These 
erecting facilities are supplemented by a kind of gridiron in 
the roof, with ropes and pulleys, whereby overhead lifting 
and support can be extended to any desired degree. What 
may be described as the scientific rapid construction of these 
large aircraft has demanded the elaboration of special ap- 
pliances to assist in the work — appliances which do not find 
their counterpart in any other field of industry. In the ship- 
yard, both in open and covered slips, cranes are freely 
employed; but these would be superfluous in the airship dock, 
for the simple reason that the weights to be handled are so 
trifling. Some of the parts may be cumbersome, but in no 
instance is the weight to be moved likely to exceed a few 
hundred pounds. 

The hull itself rests upon a cradle, similar to that which 
supports a liner in the making upon its slip. In so far as the 
airship itself is concerned, construction is complicated from 
the simple fact that no array of parts secures any degree of 
rigidity until it has been connected up to the whole. What 
may be described as a general looseness and lack of soliditv 
obtains, which is essentially due to the lightness of the 
component parts. For instance, a ring, or rather complete 

166 







Stern of dirigible ready to receive outer covering of fabric, with vertical fin, ruddei 
and elevators finished and placed in position. 




I 



Photo 




Ganeral view showing central section of one airship completed, gas bags being set. 

and outer covering applied, and a second vessel in course of erection. 
BUILDING A BRITISH DIRIGIBLE AT THE CARDINGTON AIRSHIP 
FACTORY 



An Airship in the Making 

polygon of frames, is about as stable as a similar, though 
miniature, piece of work executed in matches, when con- 
sidered merely as a ring. There is a tendency to whip, twist, 
and bend under its own weight, which is a little over a 
hundredweight, although the frame is nearly 70 feet across. 
In these circumstances, therefore, it will be seen that con- 
struction has to be carried out with supreme care and in 
accordance with rigid principles which have been scientific- 
ally determined by the technical staff ; otherwise, a collapse is 
almost inevitable. Moreover, the task of "lining-up" — 
that is, the correct alignment of every piece — is a delicate 
operation, as well as one of distinct magnitude. Of course, 
skill born of experience is of decisive assistance, but even 
then there can be no departure from the methods which 
have been introduced by the General Manager, who is the 
presiding genius of construction, to produce a sound en- 
gineering job. 

The backbone of the airship comprises a keel. This is 
built up in the form of an equilateral triangle from girders 
of the design already described, which are disposed at each 
corner of this triangle and elaborately cross-braced to give 
the keel solidity and rigidity. This triangular structure is 
called upon to bear an appreciable proportion of the many 
strains imposed, notably of what might be called the "live" 
weights, such as petrol, water-ballast, and other impedimenta, 
which are distributed evenly along the keel to relieve the hull 
as much as possible from all undue strains. The base of this 
triangle constitutes the floor of the alleyway or tunnel afford- 
ing inter-communication between the various parts of the 
ship, the engine gondolas, fuel tanks, and even the gas-bags 
or the top of the ship itself, a vertical shaft extending from 
the tunnel to the top of the vessel. 

167 



All About Aircraft of To-Day 

The rings of main frames are completed in the horizontal 
position upon the floor of the shop. This method assures a 
firm and solid base for erection, so that when finished the 
ring is not likely to be out of truth. When the ring has 
been completed, it is lifted intact, and, by means of the over- 
head rope and pulley tackle, is swung and lowered bodily 
into position. This, in itself, is a task calling for care and 
skill, because, unless adequate support be extended, the ring 
will suffer deformation imperilling rigidity by working at the 
connections, or bending. The actual erection commences 
from the centre, the amidships main frame being first set in 
position and bolted up, lined-up, and rigidly braced. Once 
this has been set, erection can be pursued simultaneously 
on both sides thereof towards the stern and stem respectively. 
The framework itself comprises the polygonal rings of girders 
and the longitudinal girders. The first-named are divided 
into two classes, these being the main frames and lighter in- 
termediate frames. The former are set about 30 feet apart, 
accurate shape being rigidly preserved by means of radial 
wires carried to a centre ring, and may be said to form the 
cell in which the gas-bag is placed. At intervals of 10 feet 
between each of these main frames a ring of intermediate 
girders is introduced. These are of lighter section, and they 
are not wired, their function being to assist in keeping the 
ship rigid, and to absorb the difference in tensions in the 
diagonal wires. 

The longitudinal triangular girders run from stem to stem, 
and they cross each ring of frames at the point where the 
sections of the polygonal girders are connected up, and are 
securely fastened thereto. The complete ship carries twenty 
of these longitudinal girders disposed 10 feet apart around its 
circumference, and they are braced together by diagonal 

168 



An Airship in the Making 

cross-wires, the purpose of which is to take up the shearing 
forces due to the ship as a beam, and also to take up the 
gas pressure due to the upward lift of the gas, which is 
considerable. 

The nose of the ship is built in a different manner. The 
ring of main frames, from which the tapering of the bow 
commences, is laid upon the floor. To this the lengths of 
longitudinals extending to the succeeding frame are bolted 
and temporarily supported by scaffolding. The succeeding 
frame is then laid in position, the further lengths of longi- 
tudinals introduced, and the next ring of frames set, the 
operation being continued until the prow is completed. This 
method of erecting the forward section as a distinct entity is 
simpler, quicker, and secures greater accuracy than if the 
system incidental to the remainder of the ship were followed. 
After the first ring of main frames has been laid on the 
ground, it is easy to determine the central point the ring 
describes, and exactly over which must come the central 
point of the prow. It must be remembered that as the nose 
of the ship is approached, the rings of frames decrease in 
diameter, and it would be a somewhat delicate matter to line 
up this section, bringing the central point of the nose of the 
ship upon the longitudinal axis of the vessel were individual 
setting in situ followed. By building the prow complete upon 
the floor, lining-up is facilitated. A plumb-line attached to 
the central point of the nose will speedily prove whether align- 
ment is perfect, because the bob should hang immediately 
over the spot on the floor constituting the centre of the 
bottom ring-frame. The airship is not fitted with a single 
casting forming the stem as is the case with the steamship, 
the actual nose being formed of triangular girders, curved to 
shape and bolted together. The prow completed, it is picked 

169 



All About Aircraft of To-Day 

up bodily by the overhead tackle, turned over on its side, 
and then swung over, bringing what was the base ring of 
main frames into line with the hull of the main ship. It is 
lined-up and quickly bolted into position, cradles being in- 
troduced at the desired points to prevent sagging strains until 
the junction has been made and diagonal and other bracing 
wires have been set. 

The stern is not such a difficult piece of work. Here the 
longitudinal girders converging in conformity with the 
tapered aft shape of the vessel terminate in a circular obser- 
vation station. A person can stand there with only just his 
head projecting, and there is a magnificent and completely 
uninterrupted view astern. Even the sense of wind, or the 
rush of air displaced by the vessel and tearing along its sides 
is lost, because, at the top, the line of the hull is slightly in- 
terrupted, and the head can occupy this space, the air rushing 
over without being felt in the slightest degree. The "pulpit," 
as this post is facetiously called, is one of the most popular 
coigns of vantage on the whole vessel, and certainly cannot 
be rivalled as a view point. 

As the hull of the vessel is completed, and it creeps for- 
ward to either end — in segments, as it were, each of which is 
finished — the gas-bags are introduced. These bags occupy 
the space between each pair of main frames. No partitions or 
walls of fabric are introduced to form a cell and to provide 
a surface against which the distended fabric can rest; but 
there is a complex lacing of wires, forming, from its intricacy, 
virtually a wire netting, which serves a similar purpose. The 
bags do not fill the whole of the volume of the "cell," because 
a clear space is left between the inflated gas-bag and the outer 
cover to keep the temperature in the gas-bags at as constant 
a level as possible. The principle is the same as the double- 

170 




Completing the prow, showing forward building cradle. At left is forward end of 
second vessel completed, shawing system of building vertically from the floor. This 
section is picked up, turned over on its side, and then bolted to central section of the 

vessel. 




Photos, by courtesy of Messrs. Short Bros , Limited. 

Stern completed. This photo, graphically illustrates the cruciform empennage, sharply 

pointed stern, erecting scaffolding mounted on wheels, as well as the immense size of 

the dock required to build vessels of this character. 

HOW A BRITISH DIRIGIBLE IS BUILT 



An Airship in the Making 

canvas-roofed tent with an airspace between. It is the circu- 
lation of the air between the two roof-layers which keeps the 
temperature within the tent equable, preventing the heat 
radiation from the other covering. Maintenance of an equable 
temperature of the gas within the bags is of vital importance, 
as it tends to mitigate expansion and contraction of the gas 
likely to arise from this cause. 

The gas-bags are made of a single-ply cotton fabric, lined 
with gold-beater's skin, the finest material for the purpose, 
and that which offers the greatest resistance to the permeating 
or diffusing action of hydrogen, and varnished. In the R32 
there are twenty-one compartments, each of which carries 
one of these gas-bags, so that practically the whole of the 
interior of the hull, from stem to stern, is filled with gas. 
Each gas-bag is fitted with two valves — manoeuvring and 
automatic respectively. The manoeuvring valve is fitted into 
the top of the bag, and is operated from the control car 
when it is desired to alter the trim of the ship, thus being 
manually actuated. The automatic valve, on the other hand, 
as its name implies, is independent of any control, and is 
introduced to prevent the gas-bag being ripped by the in- 
ternal pressure of the expanding gas rising above the elastic 
limit of the fabric. This valve is placed in the bottom of the 
gas-bag, just above the corridor running through the trian- 
gular lattice girder alleyway. It is set to blow off at about 
3 millimetres water pressure. From the valve to the top of 
the ship extends a circular fabric shaft or trunk, and this acts 
as the exhaust from the gas-bags to the outer air when the 
valve "blows off," thus carrying the hydrogen away imme- 
diately, and discharging it into the air at a point well away 
from the engines. It is a safety measure, but one which is 
invaluable when one recalls the extremely dangerous character 

171 



All About Aircraft of To-Day 

of hydrogen, and its liability to explode when combined with 
air. 

At the stern are mounted the fins, rudders, and elevators. 
They are cruciform in shape, and consist of a light framework 
of wooden girders covered with doped and varnished fabric. 
They probably represent the heaviest individual part of the 
whole vessel. The fins serve to maintain the vessel upon an 
even keel, frustrating any tendency to roll or pitch, thus 
acting in the same way as the bilge keels of a steamship. 
The elevators are for altering the course in the vertical plane, 
elevation causing the nose of the vessel to ascend, while de- 
pression exercises the opposite effect. The rudder is distinctly 
imposing, being attached to both the upper and lower vertical 
fins, and has a total active length of about 20 feet. Of course, 
both elevator and rudder are controlled from the wheels 
mounted in the navigating car set at the opposite end of the 
ship. 

When the skeleton has been completed, it is completely 
enveloped in an outer cover. This skin is made from cotton 
fabric, doped and varnished. It is stretched over the frame- 
work in sections, and thus produces a smooth polished sur- 
face, reducing skin friction, as the vessel moves through the 
air, to the minimum. This outer covering possesses no gas- 
retaining qualities as is sometimes imagined; it merely gives 
the desired external form and contour to the ship, though, of 
course, it does protect the gas-bags within from the ravages 
of wind and weather. 

The control of the vessel is effected from a cabin project- 
ing from, and on a line with, the triangular-girder keel, being 
set at the point where this part rises to form the nose of the 
airship. Here are arranged the various instruments necessary 
for the navigation of the craft— compasses, barometer, alti- 

172 



An Airship in the Making 

meter, helm, and so forth — as well as a complete telephone 
exchange communicating with various working parts of the 
airship, including the gondolas carrying the engines. In the 
case of the naval vessels, a gun position is provided on top 
of the airship forward; communication between this and 
the navigating car or bridge is maintained by means of a 
voice pipe. Under peace conditions this position will not 
be required for its designed duty, although it will probably 
be maintained as an observation post. The wireless cabin 
is also placed in this car. 

The engines are mounted in gondolas. These are small 
and compact structures, the framework being of the metallic 
latticed triangular girders. In the case of the R32 there are 
five of these gondolas, all of which are slung under the ship. 
The forward and amidship cars are disposed in pairs, while 
that at the stern is a single unit. Each, complete with the 
whole of its equipment, weighs less than one ton, and the 
method of suspension, by a few slender-looking wires, at first 
arouses misgivings; but this disappears when one is informed 
that these wires are capable of carrying forty or more times 
the strain to which they are ever likely to be subjected. Each 
gondola of the vessel in question carries a 300 horse-power 
Rolls-Royce engine, coupled direct to a propeller 17 feet in 
diameter. The engines disposed amidships are provided with 
reversing gear, to permit driving astern, and for manoeuvring 
purposes; the other units drive in the one direction only — 
forward. Access to the gondolas is by means of a short rope 
ladder and man-hole, the cars being completely enclosed to 
secure protection from weather, but fitted with safety glass 
windows. 

Before closing this description of a monster dirigible 
in the making, a few particulars of the R32 may be interest- 
i73 



All About Aircraft of To-Day 

ing. This, and the sister ship, R31, are the product of the 
Cardington works, while at the time of my visit a third and 
much larger vessel, R38, was well under way. While R32 
is smaller than both R33 and R34, she is maintained to be 
a superior type of vessel, and certainly has a higher turn 
of speed. She is admitted to be largely of an experimental 
nature, and it is anticipated that when she has settled down 
to her work she will have a speed ranging from 65 to 70 miles 
per hour. She thus ranks as the fastest ship at present in 
service. 

Her principal dimensions are : 



Length 

Maximum diameter 

Capacity 

Total lift 

Disposable lift 

Total brake horse-power 



615 feet 

,550,000 cubic feet 
47 tons 
i6# „ 
1,500 



Endurance at two-thirds full power ... 2,200 nautical miles 

While the Government is to be congratulated upon having 
supported the finest and best equipped dirigible airship con- 
struction yard in the country, if not in the world, is it not 
a matter for regret that private enterprise should suffer such 
a severe set-back at the very moment when it is most urgently 
required in the interests of the nation ? The firm which has 
carried out the work of laying out and equipping the yard, 
as well as the erection of three of our monster airships, has 
acquired experience and knowledge of far-reaching value 
and significance which are in danger of being completely lost. 
As narrated in another chapter, Messrs. Short Brothers, 
Limited, had completed the designs for a transatlantic liner 
in the strictest sense of the word. The completion of this 

i74 



An Airship in the Making 

vessel in the near future would undoubtedly have been ful- 
filled, and doubtless would have gone a long way towards the 
establishment of a regular aerial express airship service be- 
tween England and the United States of America. This 
proposal has now been indefinitely postponed. Official un- 
certainty has accomplished one regrettable result. It has 
disrupted the organisation which had been perfected, and 
has scattered the "live wires" who were enthusiastic in their 
efforts to establish a commercial aerial service upon a firm 
footing, and who, from their capacity and knowledge, were 
competent to carry the work to successful fulfilment. 



>75 



CHAPTER X 

THE SEAPLANE 

XI rHILE the aeroplane has achieved such remarkable per- 
▼ * formances, both in cross-country and trans-marine ser- 
vice, it is not adapted to sea-duty. When the negotiation of 
immense stretches of water are involved, its use in such 
service is decidedly perilous. This fact was expressed very 
emphatically by Sir John Alcock after his transatlantic 
flight. He fully recognised that had he been forced to the 
water he could never have got into the air again, because his 
craft, designed for land duty, was deficient in the facilities for 
gaining the necessary flying speed. 

The reason is obvious. The aeroplane is equipped with 
an undercarriage fitted with wheels, and so is able to run 
or "taxi" along the ground to obtain the requisite inde- 
pendent speed necessary to climb into the air, while in 
descent the land provides the means of absorbing the 
momentum possessed by the machine after it has lost its 
flying speed. When it is remembered that the landing speed 
of the aeroplane varies between thirty-five and fifty-five miles 
an hour— that is to say, that it is travelling at these speeds 
when it touches the ground — it will be seen that it must be 
extended a fairly long stretch of level land along which to 
coast and in which to pull up. Some of the German planes, 
and even those which we have designed for especial duty, 
upon striking the ground will travel along the latter for three 

176 




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x i 

o w 

fe : 

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if 

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§ 3 



The Seaplane 

miles or so before coming to a standstill. For such a craft to 
hit the water upon a forced descent is to court instant disaster, 
because, naturally, the water can offer no stable surface to 
the wheels of the machine. 

Consequently, we find special machines built for sea 
service. In their general lines, so far as the wings and body 
are concerned, they may not differ markedly from the aero- 
plane; but the undercarriage, instead of being equipped with 
wheels, is furnished with what appear to be big, oversized 
boots, or floats. These are not only capable of supporting 
the machine when at rest, but are so designed that for ascent 
they are able to skim over the surface of the water until the 
machine, having notched the requisite flying speed, can rise 
into the air. Similarly, in descent, they skim the water, and 
the latter, by virtue of the resistance it offers, acts really as 
a brake, and so brings the machine to rest. The body of the 
aquatic flying machine may even be equipped with a body 
more closely resembling an actual boat and a highly-poised 
tail, forming in very truth a flying boat, and which, 
when moving over the water, recalls the flying fish. 

During the war the seaplanes proved an invaluable 
adjunct to the Navy, more particularly for scouting, recon- 
noitring, patrolling, and especially for chasing submarines. 
As a matter of fact, in company with the small and light non- 
rigid airship, colloquially known as the "blimp," it became a 
veritable scourge to the underwater assassins. When these 
aerial craft were in the vicinity, the submarine either scuttled 
to a safe lair, or sank to the sea-bed to lie low until the bird 
of bombs and depth charges had passed on. 

The flying machine adapted to marine duty aroused less 
serious interest in these islands than the aeroplane, which, in 
view of our insular situation and the magnitude of our water- 
m 177 



All About Aircraft of To-Day 

borne traffic, is certainly somewhat remarkable and difficult 
to comprehend. It did not appear to appeal to popular or 
technical imagination in any way. Indeed, interest was so 
low that it was only through the dogged enterprise of one 
firm, Messrs. Short Brothers, of Rochester, that this phase 
of activity was taken up. They commenced operations some 
time before the war, and the all-round excellence of design 
and construction of their machines, combined with sustained 
high level of performance, attracted the attention of the 
Admiralty, which certainly did extend an appreciable measure 
of practical encouragement and support. 

It was the Short seaplane which first brought home to the 
Germans what they might expect to receive from Naval 
Britain in the air if, and when, we felt so minded. The 
inhabitants of Cuxhaven are never likely to forget the terror 
and destruction our craft of this type wrought on Christmas 
Day, 1914, in the raid made by seven machines fitted with 
200 horse-power aeromotors, upon this naval base at the 
mouth of the Elbe, the full effects of which have never been 
communicated to the world at large. Again, in the Battle of 
Jutland, the seaplanes fulfilled work of a far-reaching and 
vital character. But these machines never loomed pro- 
minently in the limelight, for the simple reason that, like the 
Navy, they were denied the opportunity to demonstrate their 
real value. Nevertheless, they accomplished superhuman 
work, patrolling the coasts regularly night and day in all 
weathers, pushing far out to sea in quest of their prey — the 
submarine and other subtle Teuton craft — and by acting as 
eyes and ears to the Grand Fleet, brought home to the enemy 
the incontestable fact that his vaunted navy was far safer 
behind a dense barrier of minefields and under guns of 
impregnable fortifications than upon the expanse of the open 

178 



The Seaplane 

North Sea. We know that the Navy never talks, and the 
aviation branch appears to have become imbued with the 
self-same characteristic trait of silence concerning the exploits 
and achievements of the seaplanes. 

What of the seaplane in commerce? Is it of any value 
to business ? Such questions are inevitable, especially in 
view of the little knowledge concerning their behaviour and 
record of service communicated to the outside world. We 
know scarcely anything of their development, and for this 
reason are disposed to consider the aeroplane, which was 
certainly produced in far greater numbers, as the incon- 
testable flying machine for commercial activity in the 
future. 

But this dependence upon the one craft is erroneous. Each 
has its specific field of service, and the range of duty is far 
more sharply defined than may be imagined, while it is not 
too much to assert that the aeroplane, just because it is more 
familiar to the public, is being applied to services of trans- 
portation for which it is less suited than the seaplane. The 
last-named has this one great advantage over its contem- 
porary : It does not demand a specially-selected and laid-out 
stretch of level country from which to ascend or upon which 
to alight. It is often difficult to secure an attractive enough 
site for an aerodrome sufficiently contiguous to the centre 
which it is desired to serve. This is especially notable in 
regard to our coastal towns and cities, with the exception of 
those situate between the Thames and the Wash. On the 
other hand, the seaplane can settle anywhere upon the water, 
be it a small harbour or even the open sea. Again, it must also 
be borne in mind that the air-line by sea is often the shortest 
route between two coastal points, while, in the majority 
of instances, if no convenient harbour be available, there is 

179 



All About Aircraft of To-Day 

an estuary, roadstead, or loch affording ample ascensional 
and landing facilities for the seaplane, and within easy reach 
of the centre it is designed to link up. 

As the virtues of the seaplane become more widely ap- 
preciated, it is only logical to anticipate a decided commercial 
development of this machine, more particularly in regard to 
the establishment of new coastal routes. Of course, for the 
opening-up of new and sparsely settled countries, possessed 
of excellent waterways and inland seas, it has far-reaching 
possibilities. What can be done in this direction was brought 
home very convincingly in the course of the naval operations 
upon Lake Tanganyika during the African phase of the war. 
The establishment of adequate seaplane passenger, light 
parcels, and mail services upon such stretches of water as this, 
as well as the Nile, bringing the scattered settlements more 
closely into touch, not only with one another, but also with 
the terminals of railways extending to the coast, would facili- 
tate and increase the pace of development and trade expan- 
sion. Even around our own coasts there are many large 
islands which, to-day, are lagging from lack of connect- 
ing services with the mainland, and the limited needs 
of which could be efficiently fulfilled by means of the sea- 
plane. 

The Short seaplane, as proposed for commercial opera- 
tions, is at present being presented in three models. One, the 
sporting Short, is one which should make wide appeal, 
especially to the lover of the water revelling in boating and 
yachting, but who, at the same time, is attracted to the realm 
of the air over the water. This machine is more particularly 
adapted to general service because, in common with all craft 
built at the Rochester yards of this company, it has the fold- 
ing wings which were introduced by these brothers long 

1 80 







General view of the vessel from the stern showing pointed after end. 




Photos, by courtesy of Messrs. Short Bros., Limited- 
Trial flight of the airship. 
THE DIRIGIBLE ON THE STOCKS AND IN THE AIR 



The Seaplane 

before the outbreak of war. This enables the wings to be 
folded back to rest against the body, after the manner of those 
of the bird or insect, so that the space required to house the 
machine is very materially reduced. All that is required is to 
withdraw or insert a pin or bolt at the point where the main 
front spars of each wing connect up to the fuselage, to fold, 
or to secure the wing in the outstretched position, as the case 
may be, the rear spars of the wings being hinged in a special 
manner to the fuselage. 

The tip-to-tip wing span, when outstretched, of the sport- 
ing Short seaplane is 44 feet, while the over-all width, when 
the wings are doubled back, is only 15 feet. The total wing 
surface is 500 square feet, length over all 33 feet, and the 
height 12 feet. Thus this machine can easily be garaged in 
a building which need only be of light construction, measur- 
ing 40 feet long by 20 feet wide and 15 feet in height. It 
is fitted with a 160 horse-power 6-cylinder vertical Beardmore 
aeromotor, and carries tanks having a capacity of 35 gallons 
of petrol, while provision for 3 gallons of lubricating oil is 
made. The machine is able to climb to a height of 10,000 feet 
in 35 minutes, and its maximum speed is 83 miles per hour. 
The radius of action upon the single fuel charge is 270 miles 
or 3 hours' flight with two passengers up, in addition to the 
pilot. The landing speed is between 30 and 45 miles an 
hour. 

Running costs of this machine should be relatively low, 
the Beardmore engine being economical in fuel. As will be 
seen, the petrol consumption ranges from 12 to 15 gallons 
an hour, according to speed. In the empty condition, the 
machine weighs 2,095 lb., and in running order, ready for 
flight, with passengers aboard, its weight is 3,100 lb., the 
difference of 1,005 lb. being made up as follows: 

181 



All About Aircraft of To-Day 



Petrol 




255 


lb. 


Oil 




30 


,, 


Water 




80 


» > 


Pilot 




180 


„ 


Two passengers (180 lbs. 


each) ... 


360 


" 




Total 


905 




Reserve for baggage 




100 


" 




Total 


[,005 


,, 



If mails be carried instead of passengers, it is possible to 
deal with a load of about 460 lb. 

From the foregoing, it will be seen that such a machine, 
while offering the sporting aviator the opportunity to gratify 
his inclinations, is yet eminently serviceable for the mainten- 
ance of communication, at frequent intervals, between some- 
what remotely situated islands and the mainland, where either 
no regular steamship service is maintained, or only at ir- 
regular intervals, and the mail service between which is not 
particularly heavy. It could also be employed for the con- 
veyance of light freight, newspapers, and of special pas- 
sengers in times of emergency, such as doctors, or even 
visitors having business connections with the island. From 
the radius of action it will be seen that intervening sea-gaps 
up to 200 miles might be bridged in this manner, and such a 
service would probably prove cheaper than the ordinary 
steamboat. The latter would not be superseded, but could 
be confined to the movement of bulkier freight, which must 
perforcedly be carried at a low rate. It must not be forgotten 
that there are many outlying islands, not only around Great 
Britain, but other parts of the world, where no telegraphic 
communication with the mainland exists, and the community 

182 






The Seaplane 

of which is often cut off from the rest of the world for weeks 
at a time. With the seaplane such as described above, the 
feeling of isolation which now prevails could be effectively 
removed. 

Designs for what may be described in every sense of the 
word as an ocean-going seaplane have also been prepared 
by Messrs. Short Brothers. This is a huge machine, having a 
tip-to-tip top wing span of 130 feet, and built throughout of 
steel, driven by three Rolls-Royce "Condor" engines, each 
developing 600 horse-power, or a total output of 1,800 horse- 
power. The maximum speed of this craft is set down at 90 
to 100 miles an hour, but the economical cruising speed would 
be from 40 to 50 miles an hour, and the radius of travel 
approximately 900 miles upon the single fuel charge. 

The most striking feature of this vessel is the arrangement 
for accommodating the passengers. Instead of building a com- 
modious car into the fuselage, the pontoons are designed to 
serve as saloons. They are each 60 feet in length, and built 
of light steel. Although two saloons are in this way pro- 
vided, there would be no intercommunication. In this manner 
the perfect balance of the machine, under all conditions, 
would be maintained; whereas, were the saloons, which are 
naturally set some distance apart to serve as miniature sup- 
porting boats when the machine is at rest, interconnected, 
allowing free movement from one to the other, equilibrium 
might be disturbed by all the mobile weight, aggregating 
some 2,200 lb., being imposed upon one side, from all the 
travellers collecting in the one saloon. 

In this machine every luxury is to be incorporated, so that 
it may be able to provide in the aerial passenger-carrier the 
amenities and comforts offered by the ocean-going liner. The 
roof of each saloon constitutes a promenade deck for consti- 

183 



All About Aircraft of To-Day 

tutionals, or participation in those games which are invariably 
associated with marine travel. Each saloon is to be provided 
with a steward and cabin-boy, while the officers and crew 
are given their special quarters. While high speeds will 
be possible with this machine, it is not proposed to use 
them normally, but to favour one which, while more moder- 
ate, will be conducive to a higher level of comfort. At the 
same time an ample margin of power will be held in reserve 
for use when occasion or emergency so demands. 

This will be an ocean-going seaplane in true earnest. It 
will not need garaging, but will be anchored in open water, 
after the manner of a vessel lying in a roadstead, possible 
of being brought alongside the landing stage for embarking 
or disembarking passengers. Its construction will enable 
weather to be disregarded, since, beyond the fabric forming 
the wings, there will be little or nothing liable to deterioration 
from exposure. Dry-docking for the over-haul and repaint- 
ing of the bottoms of the hulls of the pontoons will only be 
necessary at long intervals. The same applies to the wings, 
which are liable to a certain degree of depreciation from 
exposure to all weathers and degrees of temperature, but 
which can readily be maintained at a high level of perfection 
by the observance of ordinary protective measures, such as 
are involved in the preservation of certain parts of a ship's 
superstructure. 

Present indications may possibly point to such a vessel 
being premature, especially in view of its cost, which is set 
down at ^40,000 to ^50,000. But the future of commercial 
aviation is uncertain. It may develop with a rapidity ex- 
ceeding anticipations, as did the motor-car, once its safety 
and possibilities become fully realised. So it is well to be 
prepared, more particularly in view of the fact that the con- 

184 



The Seaplane 

struction of such an aerial liner as I have described will take 
from twelve to eighteen months under the conditions which 
at the moment prevail. 

Before the aerial liner can materialise, there are many 
questions which demand settlement. Matters concerning de- 
preciation, running costs, fares, and life of the craft as yet 
are an unknown quantity. But data bearing upon these vital 
factors are being gathered. The life of the vessel is one point 
upon which distinct conflict of opinion prevails ; but in the 
opinion of the seaplane builders of Rochester, and especially 
in regard to seaplanes, it is stated to be comparable with the 
life of the steamship so long as skilled attention is bestowed 
upon upkeep and operation. The structure itself should 
suffer little or no depreciation, while the parts exposed to 
deterioration, as, for instance, those of the motor, are capable 
of renewal. At intervals of twelve to eighteen months it 
would probably be found necessary to renew the fabric of 
the wings, but this represents the part of the machine most 
susceptible to wear and tear. The probability is that the sea- 
plane would not be worn out, but would suffer supersession 
by larger, heavier, and more luxuriously equipped craft. 
This is inevitable with the constant march of progress, and 
the resolve to furnish the travelling public with the latest 
expressions of ingenuity and design to attract patronage. 

A preliminary step towards the realisation of the aerial 
liner is the Short No. 2, the designs for which have also been 
prepared. This is a triplane and is much smaller. The 
wing span, tip-to-tip, is about 100 feet. Accommodation is 
provided for six or seven passengers, but, in this instance, 
in a saloon built into the fuselage. The speed will be about 
100 miles an hour, the idea being to provide a craft to meet 
the conditions of an express passenger service. The motor 

185 



All About Aircraft of To-Day 

equipment is to comprise two Rolls-Royce engines of the 
"Condor" type, each developing 600 horse-power. 

One factor reacting against the immediate realisation of 
the big luxurious seaplane, apart from financial considera- 
tions, is the absence of knowledge concerning the personnel 
which will be required for their control and management. 
Experience has not been advanced to a stage to enable this 
point to be determined. In so far as steamship travel is 
concerned, the regulations have become well standardised, 
and it may be that the principle there followed will be to a 
certain extent introduced to the air. In that event the crew, 
including officers, might easily number from ten to a dozen 
men. The issue will be governed by the length of the 
scheduled passage, while, of course, the insurance interests 
will exercise a prominent voice in the matter. Therefore, 
although the designs for such craft have been prepared and 
are ready to be put into construction, a complete revision of 
the present proposals may be rendered imperative with the 
accumulation of additional knowledge. Nevertheless, the 
circumstance that the drawings are ready, and that construc- 
tion can be put in hand promptly, points to the fact that 
the enterprising British builders are alert to any possible 
rapid developments in connection with aerial trans-marine 
navigation. 



186 



CHAPTER XI 

HOW THE FLYING MAN FINDS HIS WAY 

TO the lay mind, the perennial centre of interest upon the 
modern flying-machine undoubtedly is the dashboard — 
the point to which all the nerves of the machine converge — 
whence its control is effected. This magnetic attraction is by 
no means confined to the vessel of the air ; it applies equally to 
the footplate of the locomotive, the navigating bridge of the 
liner, and even to the dashboard of a motor-car, if the latter 
be freely dotted with weird and strange-looking dials and 
gauges. 

In the case of the flying-machine, however, this interest 
is decidedly intensified. This is not surprising, seeing that, 
more particularly so far as the aeroplane is concerned, the 
ability to travel at will through the air appears to be such a 
flagrant perversion of the laws of Nature in so far as they 
affect mankind. The dashboard, of a truth, may be said to 
represent the brain of the machine, because, from the readings 
of the various instruments, the man at the wheel is enabled 
to find his way, and to determine such apparently inscrutable 
problems as the velocity of the wind, the height at which the 
machine is travelling, its speed, the angle at which it is in- 
clined — fore and aft as well as laterally — the temperature of 
the water in his radiators, and the behaviour of his aeromotor ; 
or, should the plane be multi-engined, the individual running 
of each power unit. 

187 



All About Aircraft of To-Day 

Yet the dashboard is merely one side of the box of tricks. 
The cockpit itself is an intricate centre of command, bristling 
as it does with levers, wheels, and switches, from the "joy- 
stick" to the petrol tap, the rudder bar to the ignition control ; 
the hand-wheel for correcting the trim of the machine to the 
array of switches lighting the lamps attached to each of the 
calibrated dials upon the dashboard. In some instances there 
is a tendency to crowd as many instruments upon this rela- 
tively small area as possible, as if the sight of the polished 
surface of the wood were to be deprecated, and it is this 
bewildering display of devices which is apt to lead the lay 
mind to cherish the belief that the control of a flying-machine 
is one of the most perplexing tasks ever presented to man, 
and that it is only the privileged few who can ever hope to 
attain the coveted distinction of pilot. If that feeling were 
confined to the mastery of the instruments so prominently 
set out, it would probably be correct, especially when, upon 
turning to another machine the dashboard appears to be sadly 
lacking in means of guidance, instrumental assistance having 
been reduced to an extraordinarily low limit. 

Whether the dashboard be elaborately equipped or other- 
wise is a matter of little moment. It may come as a shock to 
learn that an appreciable number of pilots never consult one 
of them, or at least only in a perfunctory manner. Certainly 
they do not depend upon what this or that dial may say. This 
is not due to contempt born of familiarity, but because the 
aviators in question are pilots to the manner born, and appear 
to be endowed with a sixth or "flying" sense, in addition to 
the generally accepted faculties of which they must have full 
possession. They certainly have an uncanny instinctive 
ability to find their way about in the air, have a remarkable 
intimate feel of the machine, and will rely far more implicitly 

1 88 



How the Flying Man Finds his Way 

upon their own common-sense and intuitive feelings than be 
guided by the most perfectly contrived mechanical device. 
On the other hand, some pilots place unswerving faith in their 
instruments, and will obey their readings unprotestingly. 
Such pilots are mechanical, constitute to all intents and pur- 
poses an integral part of the machine, and so are disposed 
to numb their own powers of reasoning and deduction. Too 
implicit a faith in devices of this character, no matter how 
beautifully designed or astonishing their degree of pre- 
cision, is somewhat to be deplored, because even the most 
faithful of mechanical aids is likely to fail, and if such 
occur at a critical moment the results are likely to be disas- 
trous. 

The compass may be cited as a case in point. Every 
schoolboy knows that the needle of this instrument points to 
the earth's magnetic north. It will do so with unswerving 
allegiance so long as the conditions are favourable. But let 
a piece of magnetic metal come in close proximity to that 
needle and it will be deflected from its true path. We know, 
in so far as steamships are concerned, that the compass has 
to be adjusted from time to time, especially when the vessel 
sets out upon its first or trial trip, and a similar correction 
has to be carried out periodically with the flying-machine's 
compass, which is not surprising, bearing in mind the 
amount of ferrous metal which is now worked into these 
craft. 

Notwithstanding the circumstance that the instruments 
provided may be susceptible to derangement, or under certain 
conditions give an erroneous record, their provision is indis- 
pensable as an auxiliary. This may seem to be a somewhat 
sweeping assertion, because we know that the mariner is 
guided almost entirely by his instruments. But the conditions 

189 



All About Aircraft of To-Day 

ruling in the air and upon the ocean are so vastly dissimilar. 
For instance, a ship could hardly turn upside down without 
everyone on board becoming apprised of the action. It would 
not require any erratic behaviour upon the part of the com- 
pass to bring home this fact. But in the air, especially in 
cases of dense fog and thick cloud, as I have narrated in 
another chapter, an aeroplane is apt to turn clean over without 
the pilot being aware of the circumstance, and the compass, 
especially as it is made to-day, continues working quite un- 
concernedly. At one time the fact that the aeroplane was 
lying on its back was revealed by the compass card falling off 
its pivot, and thus becoming useless. But this was construed 
as a distinct shortcoming because, under war conditions, it 
was often imperative for the machine to be inverted to fulfil 
some designed tactical or strategical purpose. When the 
machine was brought back to its normal position the compass 
was of no further use until return to the ground. So the 
compass designer set to work to eliminate this defect. Accor- 
dingly, to the modern aeroplane compass it is immaterial 
whether the machine be travelling normally or upside down ; 
it works equally well in either situation because in the act of 
inversion the compass-card drops off one pivot on to another. 
Possibly, to meet commercial conditions, there may be a rever- 
sion to the earlier type of compass, close observation of the 
action of which would tend to warn the pilot in a fog or cloud, 
presuming he could see the instrument, that his machine 
was evincing a tendency to turn over. 

Obscuration of the instruments mounted upon the dash- 
board in an open cockpit in thick weather is a serious dis- 
ability. Often the fog will be so dense as to reduce visibility 
to a matter of inches — when one cannot see one's hand before 
one's face. If the navigating and control position be enclosed, 

190 



How the Flying Man Finds his Way 

it is possible to thwart the machinations of the fog-fiend to a 
certain degree — at least maintain sufficient clarity within the 
cabin to read the instruments from the joy-stick position — 
although a thick fog is most searching in its character, 
forcing its way everywhere, as we know full well. 

The compass intended for aerial service is of special de- 
sign. It is what is known as a liquid magnetic instrument, in 
which the "card" comprises a narrow and light metal ring, 
pivoted on a vertical axis, and carried in a brass bowl which 
is filled with the purest alcohol. One side of this bowl is cut 
away and glazed, as shown in the illustration, to permit the 
reading to be made. Naturally, in high altitudes, where the 
air is rarer, expansion takes place, and so the bowl is fitted 
with a chamber provided with a bubble trap, while the upper 
portion of this chamber is fitted with tubes and cover for the 
accommodation of correcting magnets. The "card," a light 
ring, is enamelled and divided in the usual manner, on either 
side, the points on the outer side being painted with a radium 
luminous compound, the markings on the inner side being 
non-luminous. The card is set or tilted at a slight angle to 
facilitate reading from the pilot's position. 

The instrument is made in a variety of types, according to 
the machine to which it is to be fitted; but, fundamentally, 
the principle is the same throughout. Thus there is one type 
for seaplanes, another for long-distance machines, a third 
designed for use by observers, and so on, the variation in the 
main being in detail and dimensions to adapt the instrument 
for the special range of duty involved. That for the airship 
is of a distinctive pattern. While of the liquid type, the bowl 
is semi-spherical in shape, about *]% inches in diameter, is 
replete with efficient expansion chamber, and is gimballed 
on an aluminium bracket with roller bearings. The bracket 

191 



All About Aircraft of To-Day 

is provided with the requisite magnet carrier and cover for 
correcting magnets. The card, in this instance, is horizontal, 
measuring 5 inches in diameter, marked and painted upon a 
light float, while it is read through a large adjustable prism. 
Care has to be exercised when mounting these compasses in 
position, since it is necessary to preserve the instrument from 
shocks and jars as far as practicable ; this is done by means 
of shock-absorbing springs. 

It being necessary for the pilot to be kept informed of the 
altitude at which he is flying, an instrument for this purpose 
is provided. This is the altimeter or height recorder, the 
calibration of the dial reading from 1 to 20 or more, each 
division corresponding with a difference of 1,000 feet. The 
aneroid barometer is utilised for this purpose, but is specially 
compensated for temperature. This latter provision is of 
vital import to the aviator, otherwise a false impression of 
height would be conveyed, the factor of correction varying 
according to the temperature, which exercises an influence 
upon the density of the atmosphere. Thus, whereas an 
aneroid reading of a climb through 1,000 feet, when the air 
has an average temperature of 50 degrees Fahrenheit, will be 
equal to an actual 1,000 feet, a similar reading with the air 
at 10 degrees Fahrenheit will only be equal to 922 feet actual 
distance. Similarly, if the atmosphere should be 70 degrees 
Fahrenheit while the ordinary aneroid will show 1,000 
feet, the distance climbed vertically will be 1,040 feet. 
Hence the necessity for correction, and, as a rule, the 
altimeter is compensated for temperature to read up to 
30,000 feet. 

The time, of course, is given by the clock or watch. Here 
again, notably upon long distances, corrections are requisite. 
Thus, for instance, to an aeroplane going westwards over the 

192 




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How the Flying Man Finds his Way 

Atlantic, the day exceeds 24 hours in length, because the 
machine is overhauling or travelling in the same direction as 
the sun. New York time is 5 hours behind Greenwich. Thus, 
if we have an aeroplane travelling at 120 miles an hour, as 
did the "Vimy" trans- Atlantic machine, the 3,000 air miles 
between Greenwich and New York, while occupying actually 
25 hours' steady flight, would be covered in less than a "day " 
by the clock, because the "day," to the aviator, would be 
29 hours in length. In other words, if he left London at 
midnight on Monday, he would not arrive an hour after 
midnight on Tuesday at New York according to local, i.e. 
New York time, but as the clocks were striking nine in the 
American city. On the other hand, flying at the same speed 
in the eastward direction, he would have the sun against him, 
and so the day to the pilot would be 19 hours in length. In 
this instance, if he left New York at midnight on the Wed- 
nesday he would not reach London one hour after midnight 
on the Thursday, that is, 1 a.m. Friday, according to the 
clocks set by Greenwich, but as the clocks were striking 
the hour of six. For long distance travel, the aeroplane 
must be fitted with a timepiece as accurate as that carried 
by the steamship, for the simple reason that, should thick 
and heavy weather prevail during the journey, precluding 
the opportunity to take a position from the sun, the pilot 
would have to rely upon dead reckoning. He would calculate 
his position from the revolutions made by his engines, and 
from the knowledge of the number of revolutions necessary 
to drive him forward one mile. From the time he had been 
travelling at that speed, he would be able to estimate roughly 
his position. 

Then there is the air-speed indicator. This instrument 
communicates to the pilot the actual or independent speed of 
n 193 



All About Aircraft of To-Day 

the machine; tells him the rate of progress through the air. 
I have emphasised the necessity to grasp this factor of speed 
in its relation to aerial travelling in another chapter. This 
instrument is highly ingenious, but it does not allow for alti- 
tude. That is to say, while correct near the ground, it does 
not read off directly on to the dial the actual travelling air- 
speed at a given height. The calculation necessary to adjust 
the error, however, is very simple, it only being necessary to 
multiply the speed as indicated upon the indicator by the 
number of thousands of feet shown on the altimeter, and to 
divide the sum by 60, adding the answer to the speed-meter 
reading. Thus, supposing the speed indicator registers 120 
miles per hour and the altimeter 10,000 feet. We multiply 
120 by 10 — 10 indicates that number of thousands of feet — 
which equals 1,200, and which divided by 60 gives 20. This 
is added to the air-speed indicator reading 120, making 140 
miles per hour, which is the true air-speed at the height of 
10,000 feet. 

Another important instrument is the inclinometer. This 
is somewhat similar to a spirit level, and is really designed 
for a similar function — namely, the inclination of the aero- 
plane to the right or to the left. It comprises a slightly 
curved tube of glass, which is placed in a convex position 
upon the dashboard, preferably in the centre, though it is 
sometimes placed to one side. The tube is mounted in a 
graduated case, the centre of which is marked zero. If the 
bubble in the tube rests over this zero mark, then the machine 
is level in the lateral plane when travelling a straight course. 
But if it should be tilted to one side or the other, the bubble 
naturally moves, and as the scale is graduated in degrees to 
the right or left of the zero mark up to 20 degrees, the pilot 
can read off the actual inclination of his machine, in degrees 

194 



How the Flying Man Finds his Way 

from the horizontal, from the position of the bubble in its 
relation to the scale. If the bubble is over the 4 degrees mark 
to the right of zero, then that shows the machine is inclined 
by 4 degrees in the opposite direction — that is, to the left, 
and vice versa. This instrument can also be utilised as a side- 
slip indicator when making a turn. Although to make the 
turn the machine must be banked or inclined, the bubble, 
provided the angle is correct, will remain at zero by virtue of 
the centrifugal force. Should it move upwards, it shows 
instantly that the machine is slipping bodily down the bank 
or angle described. 

Other recording instruments comprise the tachometer, or 
indicator, showing the number of revolutions the engine is 
making per minute, read off in hundreds, thereby enabling 
the pilot to satisfy himself that the engine is developing the 
requisite power to enable a specific evolution to be carried 
out, that she is standing up to her work, and to guide him in 
keeping her up to her normal full speed or to squeeze out that 
little bit extra which he may require and which he can secure 
within limits. Another instrument enables him to maintain 
an even keel fore and aft. Then a gauge shows the pressure 
of the oil lubricating system, while a similar instrument keeps 
him posted up with information concerning his petrol supply 
by recording the pressure maintained upon the feed system 
to the engine. 

Another important instrument indispensable to the pilot 
is the thermometer, giving a constant reading of the tem- 
perature of the water in the cylinder jackets and the radiator. 
As I have pointed out on another page, the density of the 
atmosphere exercises a far-reaching influence upon the power 
developed by the engine. It has a similar effect upon the 
water in the cooling circulation. As is well known, at sea 

i95 



All About Aircraft of To-Day 

level, the pressure of the atmosphere, when the thermometer 
registers 32 degrees Fahrenheit, or the barometer stands at 
30 inches, is 147 lb. per square inch. As we rise into the air 
the pressure falls, and with it the temperature. Thus, when 
the aeronauts, Siiring and Berson, ascended in their spherical 
balloon on July 31, 1901, to attain an altitude of 34,000 feet — 
approximately 6^ miles — they found that the temperature of 
the air fell at the rate oi 2% degrees per 1,000 feet from what 
it was on the ground up to 4,000 feet ; 3 degrees Fahrenheit 
per 1,000 feet from 4,000 to 17,000 feet ; and 4 degrees Fahren- 
heit per 1,000 feet between 17,000 and 28,000 feet. Con- 
sequently, while the thermometer registered 50 degrees 
Fahrenheit on the ground, at the altitude of 28,000 feet it 
stood at —44 degrees Fahrenheit, which represents a total 
difference of 94 degrees. 

Moreover, as we rise, owing to the air becoming rarer, the 
boiling point of water is lowered. Whereas the kettle on the 
hob in our home boils when the temperature of the water 
has been lifted to 212 degrees Fahrenheit, at an altitude of 
10,000 feet it will boil at 194 degrees. From this it will be 
seen that the radiator is necessarily exposed to considerable 
and violent extremes of temperature, and that arrangements 
must be introduced to shield it in the low temperatures ex- 
perienced in the higher atmosphere, otherwise efficiency is 
certain to fall off. This is accomplished by means of shutters 
or blinds, controlled by a lever from the pilot's seat, and 
which can be set at any desired point between the fully- 
opened and closed positions, the pilot being guided in the 
setting of his shutters by the reading of his thermometers 
and his travelling intentions. 

Numerous other instruments have been designed to assist 
the pilot in his work, such as the drift indicator for calcu- 

196 



How the Flying Man Finds his Way 

lating wind drift and ground speed. Obviously, if the 
aeroplane be travelling across the wind, and the latter is 
blowing at an appreciable, or even low, velocity, it is bound 
to force the plane out of its course, in the self-same way as 
a cross-current will deviate a steamship from its course. If 
one be flying over land, it is a relatively simple matter to 
calculate the amount of drift and to adjust accordingly ; but 
when flying over the open sea, with the heavens obscured 
and no marks capable of being used as bearings, the aviator 
must rely upon his own judgment to a very pronounced 
degree, and maintain his course by dead reckoning. The 
drift indicator has not yet been brought to a state of all-round 
dependability. Another instrument, which has been con- 
trived to co-operate with the drift indicator is the wind 
calculator; but the manipulation of this instrument depends 
upon observations carried out with the drift indicator. The 
air sextant is a further ingenious instrument for taking alti- 
tudes from an aeroplane by means of a prism attached to a 
centre plate or worm wheel, which is rotated by means of 
a worm having a micrometer head. The back and front 
horizons are reflected into the same field as the celestial object 
observed, and in this way a very rapid and accurate obser- 
vation can be made. 

Every instrument placed upon the dashboard is fitted with 
a small and brilliant electric torch set in a swivel mounting, 
and each is lighted independently by a push-button switch, 
similar to that employed in connection with an electric bell 
system. The small, compact board carrying these switches 
is placed at a point convenient to the aviator, enabling any 
one to be pressed with the utmost facility. Furthermore, the 
more essential instruments have the degrees of their gradu- 
ated scales or other markings painted with radium luminous 

197 



All About Aircraft of To-Day 

compound, enabling them to be read in the dark without 
switching on the electric light. 

Nowadays the wireless installation constitutes one of the 
most vital nerve centres of the flying machine. This not only 
enables the pilot to keep in touch with the land below, or 
passing vessels, but is also of far-reaching importance in 
guiding him upon his course. What is known as uni- 
directional wireless has been brought to a high degree of 
perfection. Wonderful progress has been recorded in con- 
nection with wireless telephony. In many quarters it is 
believed that talking through space will supersede tele- 
graphy. 

The bridge of the airship is similar to that of the aeroplane, 
although many additional instruments have been devised to 
assist the navigator and commander. The balloons are con- 
trolled from this point through the manoeuvring valves, which 
are operated by hand to vary the trim of the vessel, and 
by their operation a certain quantity of hydrogen is permitted 
to escape. Then there are the water ballast bags to be taken 
into consideration, as well as many other incidentals, the 
navigation of a dirigible being somewhat more complex than 
that of the heavier-than-air machine. But in both instances 
the manifestation of ingenuity is pursued merely to provide 
mechanical aids to the man at the wheel to facilitate finding 
the way through the air, and contributing to the safety of 
both the machine and its passengers. Perfection in this 
direction has not yet been wholly attained, but the hazard of 
aerial travel to-day is virtually eliminated. Dependence upon 
the human element has not been wholly overcome ; the aerial 
counterpart of the dead man's handle, incidental to the electric 
train, has not yet been evolved for the flying machine; but the 
trend of inventive brilliancy is toward that end. When this 

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is perfected, the way of the air should be as safe as that of 
the road, rail, or sea. Should anything go wrong in the air 
to the propelling unit or to the man at the wheel, there is 
no reason why the earth should not be reached in safety by 
converting the machine from a live and throbbing entity to 
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ground. 



199 



CHAPTER XII 

The Rules of the Road in the Air 

T17"ITH the world-wide opening of the Highways of the 
*» Air, the introduction of more or less defined services, 
inauguration of trunk routes, experimental voyages, and joy- 
riding in general, the necessity for the elaboration of rules and 
regulations concerning the control of such traffic becomes 
obvious, not only in the interests of those using the air, 
saving them from accident and possible disaster, but of those 
upon the earth beneath. We have the golden rule of the road 
observed in our streets whereby the users of vehicles know : 

// they keep to the left they will be right : 
If they keep to the right they will be wrong, 

and also that of the sea, especially at night, whereby the 
navigator, in passing, knows that : 

Green to Green — Red. to Red, — 
Perfect safety — Go ahead, 

the observance of which conduce to the safety and well-being 
of all, as well as the smooth, regular working of all traffic. 

So far as the air is concerned, the elaboration of rules of 
the road is somewhat more complicated, for the simple reason 
that the flying-machine has movement in the three dimen- 
sions. An aeroplane or airship can not only pass to the 
right or to the left, but also above or below. Moreover, 

200 



The Rules of the Road in the Air 

although much planning of trunk routes has been discussed, 
very little definite plotting has been carried into actual opera- 
tion. We have not yet reached the stage when the aerial 
lanes are as sharply defined as those which have been plotted 
over the seven seas. Nor, as yet, have we any competent 
authority comparable with the Board of Trade, either en- 
gaged in the framing of these regulations, or invested with 
full authority to enforce them and to see that they are truly 
honoured. Hitherto the Royal Aero Club has been respon- 
sible for a certain domestic code, prepared before the war, 
but which has achieved little since 1914, owing to the un- 
certainty of its position and the general tendency to dis- 
approve of any private organisation being vested with powers 
which ought to belong to an official department. Then there 
is the Federation Aeronautique Internationale seeking to 
control the issue in the international or universal sense, which 
is similarly opposed in many directions. The true department 
which should assume this responsibility is the Air Ministry, 
and, no doubt, it is the intention of this official department 
to become the supreme authority in all matters associated with 
movement in the air, from the issuance of pilots' licences, 
authority to use machines, airworthiness, to the framing and 
co-ordination of the rules of the road, investigation of acci- 
dents, apportionment of blame in the cases of disaster and 
mishap, and general organisation of constitutional aerial laws. 
By virtue of the fact that we possess and maintain the 
largest fleets of aeroplanes and airships, and are already 
blazing the trails through the air to various corners of the 
earth, we should elaborate a complete code of rules to meet 
every possible contingency and to cover every conceivable 
circumstance. It is a task which requires to be carried out 
with extreme care and prolonged deliberation. Then, should 



All About Aircraft of To-Day 

the stern test of practical application establish their value, 
we may safely anticipate that our lead will be followed by 
other countries, possibly without any modification or only 
such slight amendments as to adapt them to local conditions. 
We followed this policy in regard to the railway and the 
steamship, and in both instances the rest of the world fol- 
lowed, either accepting our ideas in toto, or as a model for 
their own systems, revised to meet the requirements of their 
own legal and traffic situation. 

From whatever point the issue be viewed, it is apparent 
that the rules of the air, in the long run, must be framed to 
meet local and international requirements respectively. The 
two situations are so vastly dissimilar. The former concerns 
the control of traffic over a single country ; the latter involves 
the crossing of the territory of another power. For many 
years it has been a matter for dispute as to whether a nation 
or an individual was entitled to the air above its, or his, 
territory or property. The legal and political aspects are thus 
indissolubly associated with this momentous question. It 
does not arise in connection with the ocean because the 
powers have collectively recognised the territorial waters 
limit, and that all water beyond that invisible fence is avail- 
able to one and all without let or hindrance. But with the 
air it is different. The gravitational law upsets any deter- 
mination of territorial air limit. No matter at what height an 
accident may happen, involving the destruction of the 
machine, those on the earth below are certain to experience 
the effect of the falling pieces, while it might so happen that 
one piece would fall on one and another tangible fragment on 
the other side of an international boundary. Accordingly, 
it has been decided that the air above a country belongs to 
that country without any altitude reservation whatever. 

202 



The Rules of the Road in the Air 

Previous to the outbreak of war, practically only one rule 
of the air was elaborated, and this was observed, more or less, 
during the period of hostilities. This was of a very broad 
character, and was dictated more by instinct than deliberate 
determination. It concerns overtaking machines in the broad 
aerial ocean. The rule is to keep to the right when meeting 
machines proceeding in the opposite direction, and to steer 
clear when overtaking, or, if meeting at an angle, the machine 
on the right of the other must hold to its course, the second 
pilot steering clear. It is a somewhat vague rule, but it has 
proved successful, and now, as the result of custom, is gener- 
ally upheld. But it only applies, or, at least, is observed, in 
the open air. In the vicinity of aerodromes, where the air 
was relatively thick with aeroplanes during the period of 
intensive training for war service, other "local" rules were 
laid down for the guidance of the "quirks " or learners. There 
was no attempt to elaborate general rules for widespread 
application ; they were adapted to the exigencies of the in- 
dividual training school. 

On May I, 1919, civilian flying was officially inaugurated 
by the withdrawal of the Defence of the Realm regulations, 
which had been in existence for five years. However, as 
previous to the outbreak of hostilities general flying was 
unknown, the foregoing date may be accepted as Emanci- 
pation Day in its application to the air. Coincident with the 
official recognition of civilian flying, a code of rules known 
as "Aerial Navigation Regulations, 1919," was officially 
issued by the Controller-General of Civilian Flying attached 
to the Air Ministry, which has led to the general assumption 
that this department is destined to become the sole controlling 
authority over all movement in the air. The code in question 
is certainly comprehensive so far as it goes, and the regu- 

203 



All About Aircraft of To-Day 

lations involved have been drawn up in the interests of the 
aviators, members of the general public, as well as of de- 
signers and builders of machines. The regulations in 
question apply only to the United Kingdom, and, at the time 
they were issued, did not permit general flying to places 
abroad, the laws concerning this side of the question being 
an issue for International determination and settlement. They 
are confined to civilian flying; they do not affect military or 
naval aviation in any respect. 

The rules in question are somewhat stringent, as they 
should be if the development of flight is to be continued to a 
logical commercial conclusion. All machines must be regis- 
tered, and must carry the prescribed registration and nation- 
ality marks of identification. The aviators and others engaged 
in the management of the machines must be licensed, while 
pilots, navigators, and mechanics are compelled to submit 
to a medical examination, to produce certificates of compe- 
tency, and, if required, to undergo practical tests. The 
necessity for such precautions is obvious. During the war 
hundreds of pilots were trained and obtained their wings. 
Many, after a period of service, were retired as "permanently 
unfit for pilot or observer," and the above regulation is to 
prevent such pilots from securing control of a machine in 
service. To allow them to do so would be to invite disaster, 
and so far as the air is concerned would be detrimental to 
every interest. 

The protection of the public against the machine is as 
complete as that against an incompetent or unfit pilot. No 
machine is permitted to engage in passenger-carrying service 
until it has been examined to determine its airworthiness. As 
is the case with vessels of the mercantile marine, periodical 
overhaul and refitting are demanded, while an examination 

204 



The Rules of the Road in the Air 

must also be conducted before each flight. The certificate of 
airworthiness, together with other desired details, must 
always be carried in the machine in question. By this action 
the public is protected against possible conveyance in a 
dangerous craft. A second-hand aeroplane is not like a 
second-hand motor-car or cycle. Should the latter break 
down during a journey, from failure of any part, little or 
no damage is inflicted ; but to allow a dubious, unsound aero- 
plane or airship to proceed into the air would be disastrous. 
This is not to say that a second-hand aircraft cannot be con- 
verted into a sound machine; but the process of stripping, 
overhaul, and replacement of defective parts is likely to be 
a costly process, and the official determination to guard 
against lack of airworthiness, in the same way as the Board 
of Trade exercises its control in connection with the seaworthi- 
ness of a vessel, is likely to act as an effective deterrent to 
enterprising speculators bent upon the introduction of joy- 
rides at popular resorts. Patchwork overhaul of a purchased 
machine in the attempt to obtain airworthiness is also effec- 
tively countered, because the Ministry possesses the power 
to cancel or suspend any certificate of airworthiness which 
may have been issued in the event of doubt arising as to 
the airworthiness of the machine, or of the safety of the type 
to which it belongs. 

Moreover, to induce those engaged in the conveyance of 
passengers by air to keep their machines in the pink of con- 
dition, otherwise perfect airworthiness, no machine must 
ascend with passengers unless it has previously been 
thoroughly inspected upon the day of the flight, and this 
inspection must be carried out by a duly authorised inspector. 
The pilot is not entrusted with the responsibility for deter- 
mining this question. This preflight inspection is additional 

205 



All About Aircraft of To-Day 

to the periodical general inspection. In this manner the pilot 
is protected because he is relieved of determining the sound- 
ness of the craft placed in his hands. Furthermore, a machine 
is only registered to carry a certain number of passengers, 
and none in excess of this number may be carried in any 
circumstances, thus avoiding overloading, or applying to the 
aeroplane and airship the " Plimsoll " mark incidental to sea 
vessels. As a final protection, the machine must carry a log- 
book, which must be kept up-to-date, thus applying another 
practice of the sea to the air. This condition is applicable to 
machines engaged in the movement of freight as well as those 
concerned with the transport of passengers. From the fore- 
going it will be seen that the practice identified with the sea 
has been extended, so far as conditions will allow, to the air, 
and should be adequate as far as human effort can possibly 
contrive to secure the fundamental element, "safety first." 

As may be imagined, no mails may be carried via the 
air without the sanction of the postal authorities. Nor may 
wireless be installed and used without the consent of the 
Postmaster General. This may appear at first sight to 
represent a distinct brake upon the development of etheric 
communication, but it merely brings the aeroplane into line 
with the regulations concerning the use of wireless upon the 
land. At the same time there is no intention to arrest in- 
ventive progress. Application to the authorities is certain to 
meet with sympathetic interest, and, if the conditions so 
warrant, the requisite licence will be extended. But even then 
it will be governed by the conditions concerning wireless 
operations which have been elaborated by the Air Ministry, 
which again is a useful precaution, inasmuch as the utili- 
sation of wireless in the air, unless certain requirements 
are fulfilled, is likely to prove dangerous to those in the 

206 



The Rules of the Road in the Air 

machine, more especially if the latter be of the lighter-than- 
air class. 

The rules laid down to ensure the general public safety 
are of a most rigorous description. Flying over towns and 
cities is forbidden, except at such an altitude as will enable 
the pilot to glide to make a safe landing outside the town or 
city in the event of his engine "conking" — that is, failing — or 
from any mechanical breakdown. Nor must any article be 
intentionally dropped from the machine while in flight. The 
smallest object discarded from an altitude is likely to cause 
grievous damage or injury. A penknife may weigh less than 
half an ounce, but if allowed to fall from an aeroplane travel- 
ling at an altitude of 1,000 feet will acquire sufficient impetus 
during its descent, occupying less than 8 seconds, to strike 
the ground with a terrific blow. So far as the lighter-than- 
air craft are concerned, the ballast which they are at liberty 
to discard is sharply defined. It must not be other than fine 
sand or water. 

During the war, as a result of the rigid training imposed, 
our airmen became expert and resourceful in the performance 
of exciting manoeuvres, such as looping the loop, spiralling, 
and other feats of "aerobatics," as these evolutions are col- 
loquially called. But, however essential they may have been 
to wage war against a cunning enemy, they are useless to 
civilian flying, except in the nature of sideshows. Doubtless 
the military aviator who has acquired a remarkable proficiency 
in stunting will regret official interference with his daring and 
ability to demonstrate control of the machine in an exhilara- 
ting manner; but the regulations upon this phase of the 
subject are very stringent. Trick and exhibition flying over 
any city, town, or village is strictly prohibited. An aviator 
must not even give expression to his supremacy in aerobatics 

207 



All About Aircraft of To-Day 

at regattas, race meetings, or exhibitions unless express per- 
mission for such feats has been extended. Neither must he 
fly at such a low altitude as might be construed into a menace 
to the public on the ground below, or to buildings. 

Infraction of any of the regulations which have been laid 
down is likely to be visited with exemplary punishment, 
unless the offending pilot can establish conclusive proof that 
contravention of the rules was unavoidable, such as unex- 
pected failure of mechanism or stress of weather. The 
delinquent is exposed to the penalty of six months' imprison- 
ment or a fine of ,£200. If the offence be glaringly flagrant, 
and no extenuation be forthcoming to justify his offence, he is 
likely to have both penalties visited upon him. 

Public opinion is disposed to endorse the rigidity of the 
rules and regulations which have been framed. At first sight 
their severity may prompt the feeling that they are likely to 
handicap progress. But this is not so. Every encouragement 
must be extended, as is being done, to develop and popularise 
the way of the air. This is evidenced by permission to con- 
duct joy-ride flights, which are achieving a useful purpose in 
educating the general public to the complete safety of the 
new highway for locomotion. But unless some form of 
authority were exercised, the frequency of accidents due to the 
employment of unsafe machines handled by pilots lacking 
proficiency, skill, nerve, or the essential flying temperament, 
would inflame public opposition, and tend to put back the 
clock very pronouncedly. There was antagonism to the 
railway, the steamship, and the motor car, which throttled 
development for a long time, and which led to harassing 
legislation. If the development of aerial locomotion can be 
absolved from such an outbreak of antipathy it must advance 
in popular favour at a rapid rate. 

208 




INGENIOUS INSTRUMENT FOR CALCULATING EARTH DISTANCE 



<£ d 



• 





Photo, by courtesy of Messrs Henry Hughes &* Son, Limited^ 
Women making the airman's sextant for taking altitudes from an aeroplane. 
FINDING THE WAY THROUGH THE AIR 



The Rules of the Road in the Air 

In so far as the task of evolution is concerned, control is 
made as slightly irksome as the circumstances permit. A new 
type of aeroplane will be subjected to inspection and examina- 
tion, as well as test, to determine its airworthiness. Satis- 
factory emergence from the ordeal will result in a licence 
being granted, and all further aircraft of that type will need 
only to be subjected to inspection by a competent member of 
the builder's staff, arrangements to which end can readily 
be made. At the same time, however, the Air Ministry holds 
an independent attitude, and is free to inspect further craft 
of the one type. Should this examination establish the lack 
of airworthiness of the craft, all further construction of the 
type in question must cease because the possibility of obtain- 
ing further licences or certificates is destroyed. If a manu- 
facturer or designer desire to obtain recognition of a new 
type, he must secure the admission of the Air Ministry in 
regard to its safety ; workmanship and materials employed 
must obtain the approbation of the department ; while, finally, 
the builders must demonstrate the safety of the machine by 
means of flying trials. 

In so far as the actual rules of the road are concerned, 
these are not of an elaborate or bewildering character. Every 
effort appears to have been made to render them as simple 
as possible. However, they serve to cover the various situa- 
tions likely to arise effectively, and should lead to the dis- 
appearance of collisions in the air such as have been recorded, 
and in the event of such an accident occurring, should appre- 
ciably facilitate the apportionment of the blame. 

From the nature of the rules which have been laid down 

it is evident that the aeroplane has been recognised as the 

machine possessed of the highest manoeuvring capacity, and 

that its inherent speed is a factor conducing to quick evolution 

o 209 



All About Aircraft of To-Day 

while aloft. In this respect it is placed upon the comparative 
level of the greyhound of the ocean, the airship being re- 
garded as the aerial counterpart of the sailing ship. Aero- 
planes must always give way to lighter-than-air craft, whether 
they be free balloons or airships. On the other hand, airships, 
from being provided with the capacity to secure an inde- 
pendent speed, are called upon to give way, in every instance, 
to the balloon, whether the latter be free or captive. Apart 
from this rule aeroplanes and dirigibles are placed upon an 
equal level. 

When a flying machine, aeroplane or dirigible, is over- 
taking another motor-driven aircraft, whether it be heavier 
or lighter than air, care must be taken by the following vessel 
to ensure that it is not likely, by holding on to its course, 
to pass the other within a distance of 200 yards of any part of 
the leading craft. The latter should keep to its course, the 
pursuing ship altering its helm and changing its own course 
so as to pass the other beyond the prescribed limit of distance. 
If two flying machines are approaching one another from 
opposite directions, head on or nearly head on, both are 
called upon to alter their respective courses to starboard. In 
those cases where two vessels are approaching one another 
along courses which must intersect, that vessel which has 
the other on its starboard must keep out of the way. 

Ability to move freely in the vertical plane is realised as 
likely to lead to accident unless the contingent be duly safe- 
guarded. For instance, the pilot of a fast-moving aeroplane, 
overtaking an airship upon an identical course, naturally 
wishes to hold to his own course, and might be disposed, in 
the desire to maintain his course to dive under the dirigible. 
This method of passing is rigidly forbidden, it being ex- 
pressly laid down that the overtaking machine must alter its 



The Rules of the Road in the Air 

course, so as to pass the other at the prescribed distance in 
the horizontal plane, and must not pass the vessel ahead by 
diving under it. 

It is also recognised that as the aerial routes become 
established, vessels will be disposed to keep to that route in 
exactly the same way as ocean liners, although the sea is 
wide, hold on as much as practicable to the defined steamship 
lanes. Accordingly, all aircraft following an officially re- 
cognised air route, when it is safe and practicable, must keep 
to the right-hand side of the air-lane. 

Landing grounds, whether they be on terra firma or water, 
are likely to become congested areas. But such stations, of 
course, will be under distinct control, and ultimately, no 
doubt, will be governed by distinctive rules and regulations 
affecting both short-distance and long-distance craft. Hard 
and fast rules are somewhat difficult to lay down, because 
both the aeroplane and the airship must land and "take off " — 
that is, ascend — head to the wind, which is not a constant 
factor, and even may vary in direction at ground level from 
that prevailing aloft. The landing vessel is extended premier 
recognition, it being incumbent upon the vessel about to 
"take off" to make sure that it can do so without risk of 
collision with an alighting craft. 

Under conditions of clouds, fog, mist, or general low 
visibility, it is difficult to lay down any hard and fast rules 
for observance. All that can be done in this direction is to 
impress upon the aviators the necessity to keep a sharp look- 
out, and to proceed with caution, the existing circumstances 
and conditions being taken into full consideration. 

While observance of the foregoing rules of the road will 
undoubtedly facilitate movement in the air with complete 
safety, and will minimise the responsibility of the aviator as 



All About Aircraft of To-Day 

of the mariner upon the sea, blind adherence is not going to 
represent complete absolution from blame in all cases of 
accident. In the air, as in other fields of transport, certain 
obligations are imposed upon the man in charge of the 
machine. He must keep a sharp look-out, must attend to the 
lights upon his own machine, take due notice of any signals 
that may be given, and, when placed in a tight corner, must 
give full rein to the promptings of his own common sense. 
Initiative in this, as in all other fields, often proves the only 
way out of a critical situation, since circumstances will develop 
against which it is absolutely impossible to prescribe an in- 
flexible rule. 

Perfection of safety in fast railway travelling has been 
mainly due to full digestion of the lessons taught by accident. 
The pre-eminence achieved by the British railways in this 
respect has been built upon disaster. It has led to the in- 
troduction of numerous expedients to minimise accident, 
and to reduce dependence upon the human factor, which is 
always likely to err or fail at a supreme moment, to an in- 
creasing degree. It led to the introduction of the block-signal 
system, the perfection of the automatic air and vacuum brakes, 
and other safety devices too numerous to particularise, as well 
as to improvement in the technical details of the locomotives, 
rolling-stock, and permanent way, and methods of controlling 
and manipulating traffic. A similar story may be related of 
the sea. And as with the railways and the ocean, so it will 
be with the air. During the war accidents and mishaps to 
machines did not receive the investigation they demanded; 
the majority were due to excessive zeal upon the part of the 
pilots, or the unavoidable submission of the machine to some 
stress for which it was never designed. Under peace con- 
ditions all is changed. Every accident is to be officially and 



The Rules of the Road in the Air 

technically investigated along the broad lines followed by 
the Board of Trade in regard to the railways and steamships. 
Inquiries are to be held to discover why a machine crashed, 
with a view to avoiding a repetition of the disaster. Accor- 
dingly, crashed machines must not be moved until they have 
been examined by the technicians exactly as, and where, they 
fell. The observance of this requirement will promptly lead 
to the elimination of faulty machines and types, if such are 
at present being flown, and should contribute materially to our 
knowledge of the laws concerning dynamic flight, of materials, 
aeromotors, and of the action of the air itself, as well as 
stimulate inventive effort in the evolution of safety devices 
of true significance. 

Of course, with the presentation of facilities to wander 
hither and thither over the face of the earth, according to 
desires or the calls of commerce, further laws will be elabo- 
rated. These, for the most part, however, will be found to 
be concerned with matters of fiscal import to meet the desires 
of the customs and excise departments concerned. They 
should not affect the broad principles governing the safe 
movement of passengers, freight, and mails through the air, 
any more than individual nationality affects the working of 
steamships upon the open seas. 



213 



CHAPTER XIII 

The Highways of the Air 

\\T ITH the acceptance of the air as a field for commercial 
* " locomotion, it was only logical to expect the definition 
of "lanes" corresponding with those criss-crossing the seas 
for the conduct of communication. The air may be broad and 
deep, but commerce is so exacting as to demand that the con- 
nection between the points involved shall be one as closely 
coinciding with Euclid's definition of a straight line, or, at 
least, as strictly in accordance with the bird's flight as cir- 
cumstances will permit. The trend of this development was 
distinctly indicated upon the inauguration of civilian flying 
on May i, 1919, by the authorities establishing seven trunk 
routes between London and various parts of the British 
Islands, and the Continent. 

Although, as stated, the air is broad and deep, haphazard 
wandering through this vast ocean would be beset with 
dangers innumerable. The flying machine is invested only 
with a specific radius of action, or mileage, upon a single fuel 
charge, this endurance naturally varying according to the 
type of the machine. But, while many of the craft in question 
would undoubtedly be able to span the distances involved in 
non-stop flights, it must not be forgotten that the unexpected 
must receive due consideration. And one must not forget that 
dominant force — the weather. Accordingly, it is obviously 
expedient that points should be established to allow craft of 

214 



The Highways of the Air 

the air to secure refuge in times of adversity, as when beaten 
by the weather, to obtain replenishment of fuel tanks, and, if 
the occasion so demands, to receive mechanical attention. 
Such stations, however, could not be dotted promiscuously 
about the country, for the simple reason that an aerodrome, 
from its expensive nature and somewhat elaborate equipment, 
is a somewhat costly undertaking to establish and to maintain. 
Of course, although these trunk lines have been laid down, 
it is not to say that they must be rigidly kept by the flying 
machines, since one might take to the air off the main road. 
Nevertheless, it is anticipated that those using the air for 
movement will make straight for the defined highway, en- 
tering the nearest lane at the most convenient point, so as 
to be able to take advantage of the facilities offered en route 
if desired. 

This opening of the trunk routes is frankly of a pro- 
visional nature, inasmuch as experience is necessary to 
ascertain whether they coincide with those demanded by 
commerce ; at the same time it has created a number of what 
may be termed air-ports. The hub of this net-work is 
London, the terminal aerodrome for which centre is Houns- 
low, the other ports of importance being Belfast, Bristol, 
Dublin, Manchester, Plymouth, and Renfrew. With the ex- 
ception of Manchester, these are terminals, the Lancashire 
city being on the run from the metropolis to Belfast. In 
addition to the foregoing, which concern the British Isles 
wholly and solely, routes have been defined between Holland, 
Scandinavia, and the Continent in general, the compulsory 
landing points in connection with which, to meet the require- 
ments of the Excise and Customs as well as immigration 
authorities, being respectively Hadleigh in Suffolk, New 
Holland, Lincolnshire, and Lympne in Kent. These are not 

215 



All About Aircraft of To-Day 

essentially terminals, but serve rather as clearing stations, 
where Customs facilities, especially in connection with aerial 
transit, have been provided, the flying machines subsequently 
proceeding to or from Hounslow. The routes which have 
been defined are as follow : 



LONDON (Hounslow) to 



Belfast. 


Bristol 


. Dublin. 


Scotland. 
Via 


Plymouth. 


The Continent. 


Hucknall 


Filton 


Witney 


Wyton 


Eastleigh 


Holland — Had- 


Sheffield 




Castle 


Harlaxton 


Catte- 


leigh (route via 


Manywell 




Bromwich 


S. Carlton 


water 


Harwich) 


Heights 




North 


New Hol- 






*Didsbury 




Shotwick 


land 




Norway and 


Scale Hall 






Doncaster 




Sweden — New 


Luce Bay 






Copman- 




Holland (route 


Aldergrove] 






thorpe 
Catterick 
Redcar 
Newcastle 
Turnhouse 
Renfrew 




via the Humber) 

Other parts — 
Lympne. 



These routes became immediately possible owing to the 
number of aerodromes which were available, as a result of the 
operations carried out by the Government to meet the require- 
ments of the war. When the Armistice was signed on 
November u, 1918, there were 337 aerodromes and landing 
stations scattered throughout England, Scotland, Ireland, 
and Wales. It was found possible to relinquish 34 of this 
number immediately, to serve as intermediate stations upon 
the authorisation of the resumption of general flying. The 
proposal is to allocate 120 of these aerodromes in all to com- 
mercial operations, but it was found impracticable to release 
them all simultaneously from official service for the purposes 
of commerce. These stations are well equipped with exten- 
* For Manchester. 
216 



The Highways of the Air 

sive buildings, providing docking, hangar and fuel 
supply facilities, as well as repair shops, tools, and 
mechanics. 

In plotting out the first air lanes, the authorities did not 
aim at providing the shortest communication between the 
distant terminals, but endeavoured to serve as many important 
points en route as possible. Thus, it will be observed on the 
Scottish route, that the lane lies by way of Doncaster and 
Newcastle, that to Belfast touches Sheffield and Manchester, 
while the Plymouth line, by proceeding by way of Eastleigh, 
serves the Southampton area. 

Probably the first flight to be made along any of these 
routes was that made by Mr. H.J. Thomas, a director of the 
British and Colonial Aeroplane Company, Limited, of Bristol. 
Having an important appointment with Major-General Seely 
at the Air Ministry in London, this gentleman took the oppor- 
tunity, offered by the removal of all restrictions upon private 
flying on May i, to make the journey through the air, the 
train service between Bristol and London, at that time, at all 
events, leaving much to be desired. A Bristol "coup6," de- 
scribed in another chapter, was selected for the run, and 
although the wind was boisterous, and rain was falling 
heavily, while the clouds were low and misty, rendering the 
general flying conditions most unfavourable, he set out with 
Lieutenant Uwins at the wheel. The strong wind being 
behind them, a fast flight was made, Swindon being crossed 
in I2j4 minutes from the start, representing a run at 160 miles 
an hour, while Didcot was picked up in record time. Shortly 
afterwards the aeroplane dashed into a blinding rain-storm 
and a heavier wind. Thereupon the pilot decided to change 
his course in order to avoid the storm centre and to render 
travel more attractive to his passenger, bearing north-east- 

217 



All About Aircraft of To-Day 

wards until he reached Aylesbury, when he turned, to approach 
Hounslow from the north instead of from the west. Despite 
the circuitous route the landing was made at Hounslow 
a little before 11.30 a.m., the run from Bristol, about 100 miles 
as the crow flies, but considerably more by the route which 
was followed, having occupied 58 minutes 5 seconds. Mr. 
Thomas was the first civilian passenger to land at any offi- 
cially appointed aerodrome in the country, although later 
that opening day another Bristol machine landed at Man- 
chester after a flight from Reading, with a parcel of cine- 
matograph films for display in the Lancashire city that even- 
ing. The flight made by Mr. Thomas was regarded as of 
striking significance in more senses than one. The era of 
commercial flying could scarcely have been ushered in under 
more adverse weather conditions, but the journey conclu- 
sively proved that a machine of scientific design and solid 
construction has very little to fear from weather when skilfully 
handled, while at the same time it emphasised the flexibility 
of the way of the air, enabling centres of meteorological dis- 
turbances to be circumvented. 

But, generally speaking, it is conceded that the trunk air- 
ways of Britain will never be called upon to cope with heavy 
traffic, except upon distances from 300 miles upward. The 
time saved is not considered to be adequate to warrant the 
heavier expense of the journey. Of course, if the cost of 
aerial transportation can be brought to the level of first-class 
railway fares, it will have a much more attractive future, 
because full advantage will be taken of the opportunity of 
being able to start at any time convenient to the passenger, 
instead of being compelled to adhere to railway time-tables. 
It is the longer routes which are more likely to make appeal, 
especially those involving the negotiation of the Irish Sea, 

218 



The Highways of the Air 

as, for instance, between Dublin and Belfast and British 
centres, where the time occupied by the existing communi- 
cating facilities is a serious factor, not to mention the 
opportunity to avoid an uncomfortable sea-crossing. 

British commercial flying by aeroplane will commence to 
develop once the Continental routes are opened. Then we 
may anticipate trunk airways between London and other 
provincial cities ramifying from London and the leading pro- 
vincial centres to various parts of the Continent — Paris, 
Brussels, Antwerp, Rotterdam, and other cities within easy 
reach. The aeroplane is not likely to be called upon to make 
journeys exceeding five or six hours in duration until it has 
undergone considerable development. Its present limited 
dimensions and degree of comfort are distinctly adverse. 
The above-mentioned cities can be reached from London 
within 2^ to 4 hours, which probably will be found to 
represent the approximate limit of endurance upon the part 
of the passengers. Inability, or only restricted opportunity, 
to stretch the limbs will act as a deterrent, to all but the most 
persistent and to those who are prepared to tolerate dis- 
comfort and inconvenience so long as they can reach their 
destination within less time than is possible by any alternative 
means of communication. 

It is quite possible, moreover, that the Continental air- 
ways will follow the circular route system, as, for instance, 
London — Paris — Brussels — Antwerp — Rotterdam — Harwich 
— London. Such would offer the advantage of the short-stage 
journey, with the majority of the passengers making the 
flight from stage to stage at one time. That is to say, at 
Paris the passengers from London would disembark, and the 
machine be filled with others wishing to proceed to Brussels. 
At the Belgian capital another complete change over would 

219 



All About Aircraft of To-Day 

take place, those embarking being destined for Antwerp, and 
so on round the circuit. 

Of course, as aerial travel develops, linking-up services 
will be created, radiating from each of the above-mentioned 
points. Thus, from Paris another circle might be described 
of about 250 miles radius to embrace Lyons — Berne — 
Cologne, or a stage-route, Paris — Orleans — Tours — Bordeaux 
— Toulouse — Marseilles — Lyons — Berne — Dijon — Paris. 
From the commercially strategical points on this stage other 
similar circular routes could be advanced, as, for instance, 
Lyons — Marseilles — Nice — Genoa — Florence — Bologna — 
Venice — Milan — Turin — Lyons. In this manner it would be 
possible to cover Europe by a series of overlapping zones or 
circles, with the points of intersection forming possible junc- 
tions affording facilities for changing over from one route to 
the other. But, in every instance, attempts would be made 
to reduce each stage of the journey to the limit appealing 
to the passenger who does not appreciate being cribbed, 
cabined, and confined for more than two or three hours on 
end. 

Moreover, one has to take into consideration the physical 
endurance of the pilot. Flying is monotonous, as every air- 
man will admit, and it is certain to become pronouncedly 
so under civilian conditions. Swinging along in a straight 
line, at a constant speed, keeping a level keel, describing such 
turns as are necessary in circles of large radius, and keeping 
approximately to a constant altitude, is probably the most 
monotonous tax upon driving ability that one can conceive, 
especially after the route has been covered so many times as 
to rob it of all novelty. The pilot will probably become as 
"fed-up " with his journey as the passengers. To permit such 
a feeling would be fatal, as it would lead to inadvertent care- 

220 



The Highways of the Air 

lessness. It must not be forgotten that, under service con- 
ditions, the flying man was able to break the monotony of 
the flight. He could soar to the extreme altitudes, carrying 
his climb to the limits of his machine, and indulge in aero- 
batics — zooming, looping the loop, spiralling, gliding, nose- 
diving, and what not — to vary the tedium of his stay in the 
air — all of which variations to eternally steady ploughing 
uneventfully forward are denied him under civilian conditions 
upon a sedate passenger and freight-carrying service. It is 
impossible to advance the work of the engine-driver upon 
the footplate, or the captain upon the bridge of an ocean liner, 
as a parallel. There is no other system of locomotion com- 
parable except, perhaps, it be the submarine, and that, as we 
have been freely told, is as monotonous as movement by the 
air. 

Of course, remarkable non-stop flights are advanced as 
instances of rapid travel, but they cannot be expected to be 
brought into daily or regular service. There is a spice of 
adventure about such feats which is lost in a regular service. 
They do not constitute such tributes to the machine as 
to the endurance of the men at the wheel. In the air> as 
in the factory, and all other fields where machinery is em- 
ployed, the continuous running of the mechanism without a 
stop is dependent upon the staying power of the man. And 
the machine will always beat the man. For this reason alone, 
therefore, we must regard the aeroplane in its present form 
as a vehicle of the hop-skip-and-a-jump order, flying from 
point to point, the distance between which will be relatively 
brief, and will not be found to exceed four to five hours' 
duration. 

The aeroplane, however, is an ideal vehicle for this short- 
distance traffic. It is the business which will prove the most 

221 



All About Aircraft of To-Day 

lucrative, because, in the air it will be found, as with the 
omnibus service in our streets, that it is the short-distance 
traffic which pays, while the opportunity of getting a full 
complement of passengers is so much greater. As the busi- 
ness develops, we shall have the one machine confined to 
the one pilot in precisely the same way as locomotives are 
held day after day by the same driver, and the engineer and 
commander have control of the one liner. By prolonged 
association the pilot is certain to become thoroughly familiar- 
ised with his craft, to become intimate with its varying 
idiosyncrasies — to obtain the hang of it so completely as to 
become virtually part and parcel of the whole. In such way 
the utmost can be gained from an aeroplane as from any other 
vehicle. This serves as an additional inducement for the 
recognition of the zone and stage system of routes, because 
thereby it will be possible to extend the pilot the requisite 
"lay-off" after completion of a certain mileage. It must be 
remembered that, unlike other craft, the aeroplane cannot be 
liberally staffed. Each additional man carried represents the 
sacrifice of a passenger and the distribution of the possible 
earning-capacity of the eliminated passenger among those 
carried, which, if continued to an undue extreme, would 
inflate the carrying charges or fares to a prohibitive 
level. 

So far as the short-distance traffic is concerned, the air- 
ship does not represent a serious competitor. It is essentially 
a long-distance machine. It will appeal for such business for 
reasons which are obvious from what I have related in con- 
nection with the description of the proposed trans-oceanic 
dirigible. But even here the stage system will need to be 
followed, owing to the adverse factor represented by a huge 
stock of petrol aboard. Seeing that approximately one ton 



The Highways of the Air 

of petrol is consumed every 140 miles by a 60 knot 2,750 
horse-power propelling unit at full speed, it will be seen that 
there are decided limits in connection with long-distance air- 
ship passages. The non-stop flight between London and New 
York would probably represent the limit in this connection, 
although, even in this instance it has been maintained that 
it would be preferable to follow a stage-to-stage route such 
as London — Iceland — Greenland — Newfoundland — New 
York, or London — Lisbon — Azores — New York, because 
there would be an appreciable volume of intermediate traffic, 
while the existence of the stations between would facilitate 
replenishment of fuel tanks. 

There is one aspect of the development of aerial travel 
which has not received the acknowledgment or encouragement 
it deserves. It is widely accepted that the airship routes will 
follow those of the steamship. This would be fallacious. By 
so doing it would come into direct conflict with its most 
formidable competitor — a rival able to offer far greater attrac- 
tions to the traveller, and attractions which will induce him 
to pause and to reflect as to whether it is worth while going 
by air instead of by sea. 

The airship will achieve its greatest success by opening up 
new routes, creating traffic, and incidentally developing trade 
expansion in new areas. If a five-day airship service were 
established between London and Australia, and airships were 
to sail every hour, it would not hurt the steamships plying 
between the extreme corners of the world by one cent. Para- 
doxical though it may seem, it would probably increase their 
returns, because it would stimulate trade between the two 
countries. The airship service would sow, although finding 
it extremely difficult to hold its own ; and the steamships 
would reap the harvest. It would also come into conflict 

223 



All About Aircraft of To-Day 

with the cable service, which, seeing its revenue threatened 
from quicker transit of mails, would concentrate efforts to give 
better, quicker, and cheaper service, the ultimate upshot of 
which might easily lead the hustling commercial world to 
consider five days' communication too slow when a business 
transaction might be accomplished within a few hours by 
cheaper cable service. 

Plotting lucrative routes for both aeroplanes and airships 
will constitute an exceedingly difficult task, and many heart- 
rending failures will be recorded. It is work which will need 
to be conducted along daring pioneer lines, not conflicting 
with established services. It will be folly to judge results 
from the first spells of success. The novelty stage offers no 
index to the future; it is when the system settles down into 
its stride, occupying the particular niche in the scheme of 
things, which determines its future. But there are many 
corners of the world, the expansion of which is merely await- 
ing the introduction of some quick, frequent, and inexpensive 
means of communication. An aeroplane would flourish where 
a steamer, no matter how small and cheaply operated, would 
fail to earn enough grease to keep its engines running. These 
are the true openings for aerial traffic in its present stage; the 
openings which will enable development and evolution to be 
carried out to profit, and which, if conducted with sufficient 
enterprise and enthusiasm, must lead to the advance of the 
idea to such a stage of perfection as to allow its introduction 
to more competitive fields with every reasonable opportunity 
of success. 

If the development of aerial traffic in the British Islands 
within the few months it has been opened, the period which 
should have been attended by the pressure incidental to 
novelty, offers any criterion of the future, then the prospects 

224 





Oh u ° 

O 13 S 

J .3-° 

O o S 

2 ™ 3 



w I 






The Highways of the Air 

are decidedly disconcerting. We are decades removed from 
the day when the skies will be black with flying machines. 
With fares ranging from one shilling to five shillings per 
mile for the highest speed of travel combined with the lowest 
scale of comfort, the prospects are not encouraging. Even 
the millionaire demands a full return for his money, and he 
has never considered speed without a measure of luxury as 
equitable value for a high fare. 



225 



CHAPTER XIV 

Some Typical British Aeroplanes of To-Day 

'TRANSPORTATION naturally falls under one of two 
broad headings. These are respectively passenger and 
freight. Of course these two classifications are capable of 
sub-division, especially freight, which can be split up into an 
almost indefinite array of classes varying with the character 
of the goods handled. Some are bulky but light, others are 
compact but weighty, still more are cumbersome and fragile, 
while there is also the extensive "perishable" category in- 
volving foodstuffs. 

Passengers may be grouped under two fundamental head- 
ings. There is a certain proportion of the community which 
regards the time occupied in moving from one point to 
another as waste. This type of traveller bemoans the inter- 
lude because it cuts him off from his business, although 
the perfection of wireless telegraphy has done much to bridge 
this hiatus in commercial operations. Accordingly, this 
section, construing travel into an unavoidable evil, is pre- 
pared to accept the very swiftest means of conveyance avail- 
able with a total disregard of cost. This is the class which 
favours the very fastest express trains, which will even incur 
the expense involved in chartering "specials" to save valu- 
able minutes, which has brought the 25-knot liner into being, 
which enthusiastically supports extremely swift motor-car 
movement. But to them the high-speed aeroplane represents 

226 



Typical British Aeroplanes of To-Day 

a distinct move forward. The ability to travel at 120, 150, 
or, under favourable conditions of weather, at even 200 miles, 
an hour will be seized with avidity. Comfort during the 
journey is a secondary consideration ; to these individuals it 
is far more important to be able to turn into a sleeping berth 
overnight in London and wake up the next morning in New 
York. They may be called upon to pay very heavily for 
the privilege of being carried at incredible velocity over 3,000 
miles during the few hours when commerce is normally sus- 
pended, but that is immaterial. Business is business, and in 
the estimation of these individuals every available hour of 
existence ought to be surrendered to the conduct of that 
business. In other words, the exceedingly high-speed aero- 
plane is essentially for the supernal hustler, and he may be 
relied upon to support the development of this class of aerial 
craft. 

The annihilate-time-and-distance members of the commu- 
nity, nevertheless, are in marked minority. The average in- 
dividual is content to take travel more leisurely, even if it be 
identified with business. He regards the journey as a welcome 
break to the eternal round of commerce, appreciates comfort, 
and is not prepared to pay a fancy fare for his accommodation. 
This class outnumbers the former by probably a thousand 
to one, for the simple reason that it appreciates a certain 
joy in life, and knows that the human engine cannot be driven 
at sit-on-the-safety-valve pressure the whole while. Conse- 
quently, for this class of traffic, which is the more remunera- 
tive in the long run, a larger type of aeroplane will be 
necessary; one possessed of moderate speed but replete with 
every comfort, and with every disadvantage incidental to 
this system of movement reduced to the minimum. 

This more slowly-moving majority of the community also 

22J 



All About Aircraft of To-Day 

includes a considerable proportion of people who are quite 
content to tolerate relatively moderate luxury and comfort 
so long as they can secure the necessary passage at a low 
tariff; it is the class which is quite prepared to book 
a passage on the mixed passenger and freight steamship, 
making sundry calls on the way; and to this vessel it is 
immaterial whether any passengers be aboard or not because 
it is the freight which pays. For this reason we may safely 
anticipate commerce demanding an aeroplane of medium or 
low speed, capable of carrying both passengers and freight, 
or only freight, according to exigencies; but which, if pas- 
sengers be included, will regard the latter only as an equiva- 
lent for so much freight from the revenue point of view. 

Freight itself constitutes a much more complex problem — 
one which has not yet been fully investigated by commercial 
aviation interests. In this instance it will be necessary to 
evolve the very largest machine possible for a given horse- 
power, while speed will have to be reduced to the figure 
which yields the highest financial return. It will be the 
tramp of the air, ready to go anywhere, to pick up another 
load directly one has been dropped, thereby reducing the 
period of inactivity to the briefest possible, and to follow 
undefined instead of regular, carefully scheduled routes, that 
will be in demand. 

Other classes of traffic, to which full reference is made 
elsewhere, are likely to prove highly remunerative and cap- 
able of extensive development. These include movement 
of light goods which can be packed in relatively small 
space, the urgency in delivery of which is paramount; the 
transport of first-class mails under certain conditions, and 
the urgent transmission of important dispatches. Certain 
grades of freight are quite impossible to the flying machine, 

228 



Typical British Aeroplanes of To-Day 

both airship and aeroplane, in the present status of the 
movement, for the simple reason that they are carried in 
bulk, time occupied in transport being virtually immaterial, 
and at exceptionally low rates. The time may come when 
the air will be able to compete successfully with movement 
by road, rail, or sea even in respect to these grades of freight, 
but it is certainly not within sight at the moment, and will 
not become a commercial practicability until we attain the 
mammoth craft propelled with engines of 25,000 to 30,000 
horse-power. 

Hard matter-of-fact commerce regards the situation more 
logically as contemporary practice plainly shows. Our 
manufacturers, settling down to peace conditions, are main- 
taining just sufficient imagination to keep progress moving, 
although they are pursuing a policy of "make haste slowly," 
the golden precept in all matters concerning transportation 
development as in other phases of human endeavour. 
Those firms which were pioneering the Way of the Air, 
especially in regard to the aeroplane, previous to the year 
1914 have reverted practically to the point where their in- 
dividual policy of evolution was interrupted by the outbreak 
of hostilities, although they are taking all the lessons taught 
by the war to heart in so far as they can be applied to 
decisive practical advantage. In certain phases of aero- 
dynamic science the war has been productive of far-reaching 
knowledge, which has been fully assimilated, notably in 
matters concerning power, speed, lift and stability, and 
perhaps more particularly in regard to structural materials 
and their most efficient form. 

It is my intention to narrate something concerning the 
latest developments in connection with the aeroplane and the 
adaptation of the destructive curses of war to the construc- 

229 



All About Aircraft of To-Day 

tive blessings of peace; and to tell of the machines, some 
of which, directly evolved from military models, have 
already established their commercial possibilities, because 
these craft are typical of the new or third era of aviation 
history. Possibly, in the tout ensemble, there may appear 
to be monotony of design, but this to a certain degree is 
inevitable, and is more apparent to the lay mind than real 
to the expert. On the other hand, in detail a striking mani- 
festation of individuality and brilliancy of ingenious thought 
is manifest, while the modification of what may be termed 
well-standardised lines is probably more extensive than may 
be generally conceived. 

The Bristol Aeroplane 

Ten years ago — 1910 — the British attitude towards the 
Highway of the Air was decidedly apathetic. This indiffer- 
ence was not confined to the general public, but was inci- 
dental to manufacturing circles as well, while British 
inventive activity in regard to aviation appeared to be at a 
very low level. On the other hand, the French were pur- 
suing investigation, experiment and research at a rare pace, 
the result being that their expressions of the solution to 
dynamic flight became familiar throughout the world. 
Farman, Bleriot, and other French pioneers were in the 
full glare of the limelight. 

However, in the above-mentioned year two enterprising 
and perspicacious British gentlemen, the late Sir George 
White, Bart., and his brother, Mr. Samuel White, impressed 
by the laurels which were being showered upon the French 
pioneers, the work of whom was promising to give our 
neighbour supremacy in the air, decided to establish the 
aeroplane manufacturing industry in this country. To this 

230 



Typical British Aeroplanes of To-Day 

end they founded the British and Colonial Aeroplane Com- 
pany, Limited, establishing suitable works in which to carry 
out their intentions at Filton, Bristol. They were essentially 
business men, regarding the exploitation of the air exclu- 
sively from the commercial point of view, convinced that 
it must become a recognised highway for the conveyance 
of passengers and goods, while they were also sufficiently 
astute to realise that in war the flying machine must play 
a decisive role. 

They accepted the Farman aeroplane as their model, 
intending to evolve therefrom, as knowledge of dynamic 
flight was acquired, a distinctive British type. How com- 
pletely they succeeded is strikingly evident to-day. The 
Bristol aeroplane played a very prominent part in the aerial 
war, several hundred machines being built for the Royal 
Air Force, with which work of an incalculably valuable 
character was accomplished. The veil of secrecy which 
was necessarily maintained over our military operations 
reacted against the various machines designed and built 
at Filton from becoming known among the community at 
large, but they ranged from the "Bristol Scout," a single- 
seater capable of notching a speed of 140 miles an hour and 
of climbing, to 10,000 feet in eight minutes under the energy 
developed by the 310 horse-power "Mercury" radial aero- 
motor, to the mighty "Bristol Triplane Bomber," to which 
the enemy was compelled to concede every respect. Not 
only could this craft carry a staggering load of heavy bombs, 
but, under the propelling effort imparted by its four Liberty 
engines, each developing 400 horse-power — 1,600 horse- 
power in all — could attain a speed of 125 miles an hour. 

War did not introduce the "Bristol" aeroplanes to the 
aerial arena; it merely served to assert the possibilities of 

231 



All About Aircraft of To-Day 

these machines and to vindicate the prevision of the two 
gentlemen who had been sufficiently daring to establish the 
new industry in these islands at a time when the conditions 
and public enthusiasm were at a depressingly low level. 
Within twelve months of commencing operations the French 
interests, who had had matters all their own way in regard 
to the exploitation of the Way of the Air, commenced to 
experience the effects of British competition. Bristol 
machines were flying in all parts of the world — from Italy 
to Australia, South Africa to Roumania, India to Spain, 
and were meeting with increasing favour in Russia, which, 
contrary to general belief perhaps, was one of the most 
progressive countries in those days in all matters pertaining 
to the development of the flying machine. 

Activity was not confined to advancing the possibilities 
of the biplane. At that time there was a pronounced 
cleavage of opinion as to whether the monoplane or the 
biplane would offer the most attractive solution of the new 
conquest under way. The advocates of the monoplane 
pointed to the achievements of Bl^riot in support of their 
claims; the "biplanists," while conceding ungrudgingly due 
honour to the hero of the Cross-Channel flight, maintained 
that the most consistent flying was being carried out with the 
biplane, and that therewith, too, many triumphs had been 
recorded, especially by those most popular pilots the Far- 
man Brothers. The sensational performances of the Wright 
Brothers were asserted to be an additional convincing proof 
of the superiority of this design. 

The British company followed a generous policy. It 
took no sides in the controversy, but designed a distinctive 
"Bristol" monoplane which speedily won its spurs, not only 
in the Old, but in the New World. In fact, the monoplane 

232 



Typical British Aeroplanes of To-Day 

of British design and construction achieved such a high 
reputation as to arouse comment as to why this type of 
machine did not play a more prominent part in the war. 
As mentioned in another part of this book, the forces of 
prejudice proved to be incontestable. Even the French, 
who maintained a more enlightened and open mind, decided 
against the Bleriot monoplane as a fighting unit, but this 
was solely due, so I have been informed, to technical 
military objections. The field of vision offered to the pilot 
manning this craft was declared to be so severely limited as 
to nullify its other accepted qualities. 

Now that we have returned to peaceful conditions, per- 
mitting commerce to pursue its untrammelled way, what 
are the intentions of the Fathers of the famous "Bristol" 
creations? They are comprehensive, fully maintaining the 
progressive traditions of the company identified with the 
design and production of various models. We see the 
mighty Bristol triplane bomber "stripped of all the feathers 
of war." Death-dealing guns and destructive bombs have 
given way to a commodious body for the conveyance of 
passengers or freight. This massive machine in its peace 
paint has attracted widespread interest, for the simple reason 
that it is one of the most satisfactory of the large machines 
which so far have been evolved to meet the conditions of 
peace. 

The two upper wings have a tip-to-tip span of 8i>£ feet, 
that of the bottom plane being 78%. feet. The gap — 
vertical distance between the wing chords — is 7 feet 2 x / 2 
inches, while the maximum chord is 8}4 feet. The total 
wing area is 1,905 square feet. The area of the top fixed 
tail surface is 51^ square feet, while that of the bottom is 
45 square feet. The top and bottom elevators each have an 

233 



All About Aircraft of To-Day 

area of 42^ square feet; the fixed rear fin surface 282 square 
feet, and the rudder 25 square feet. 

The triplane is fitted with four "Liberty" engines, each 
developing 410 horse-power — 1,640 horse-power in all — when 
running at 1,750 revolutions per minute. No reduction 
gear is incorporated, the transmission being direct to the 
two-bladed propellers, which consequently make a maximum 
of 1,750 revolutions per minute. The vessel measures 
513^ feet in length over all, while its maximum height is 
20 feet 8 inches. Its total weight, empty, is 10,650 lbs. 
— 4^ tons — and, fully loaded, ready for the air, including 
450 gallons of petrol, 40 gallons of oil and 30 gallons of 
water, 17,500 lbs., or more than 7^ tons. This gives a 
load for the total wing superficies of 8 65 lbs. per square 
foot, and a loading of 106 lbs. per brake-horse-power. 

The engine power with which it is supplied is adequate 
to give the machine a speed of 125 miles an hour when 
flying near the ground, as, for instance, the altitude which 
would probably be generally attained in commercial practice 
when congenial atmospheric and meteorological conditions 
obtain. Its climbing capacity is also somewhat high, an 
altitude of 5,000 feet being attainable in 6 minutes, at which 
level it can maintain a maximum speed of 122 miles an hour. 
It can rise to 10,000 feet in 13 minutes and can notch a 
speed of 113 miles an hour at that altitude. Its lowest 
landing speed is 55 miles an hour. 

This triplane, known colloquially as the "Bristol 
Pullman," from the circumstance that its military body has 
been superseded by a special Pullman car, has seating 
accommodation for 14 passengers, in addition to the pilot 
and engineer. Comfort and convenience have been closely 
studied, each passenger being provided with a luxuriously 

234 



Typical British Aeroplanes of To-Day 

upholstered arm-chair. The car, about 7 feet in height, is 
completely enclosed, and the seats are disposed on either 
side of a central gangway. For the convenience of each 
passenger there is a large square porthole glazed with triplex 
glass, while the pilot and engineer occupy a roomy cabin, 
glazed on all sides to offer a wide and uninterrupted field of 
vision, with lower portholes sweeping the ground in front 
and below, placed in the nose or prow of the body. Arrange- 
ments have been incorporated for heating and lighting by 
electricity, so that this aerocar offers all the attractions of 
the luxuriously embellished Pullman coach associated with 
the railway. 

The passenger-seating accommodation is so arranged that 
any or all of the arm-chairs may be removed promptly if 
desired, to provide for stowage of luggage or general cargo. 
In this manner it is possible to obtain 320 cubic feet of space. 
In addition to the two pilots this triplane is capable of lifting 
a load of 2,700 lbs. — nearly 1^ tons — with sufficient fuel 
for a four hours' flight, or, alternatively, 4,000 lbs. — 
approximately ij{ tons — with fuel for a flight of 2}4 hours. 
These figures are based on an economical speed, ranging 
from 100 to 105 miles an hour at three-quarter throttle, 
leaving a sufficient reserve of power to reach a maximum 
speed of 125 miles an hour, if necessary. However, taking 
the lower radius of action, it will be seen that this machine 
could carry about ify tons of cargo between London 
and Paris, the air-line distance of which is 215 miles, the 
fuel capacity actually being adequate to carry this load a 
distance of 250 miles. 

The British and Colonial Aeroplane Company has 
elaborated a second type of commercial vehicle, the "Bristol 
CoupeY' which in many respects closely follows the lines 

235 



All About Aircraft of To-Day 

of the "Bristol Fighter," which proved such an eminently 
successful type of fighting machine. This is a biplane 
having a wing span, tip-to-tip, of 39 feet 3 inches, the chord 
of the wing being 5 feet 6 inches, giving a total wing area 
of 405 square feet. The machine has an all-over length of 
25 feet 9 inches, while its maximum height is 10 feet 1 inch. 
It is fitted with a single Rolls-Royce "Falcon III." 
aeromotor developing 264 horse-power, driving a two- 
bladed propeller. In the empty condition the biplane 
weighs 1,750 lbs.; in running order, ready for the air, 
2,300 lbs. 

This coupe has been designed essentially for fast speeds, 
if desired, and at the same time is able to climb very 
rapidly. At ground level the maximum travelling speed 
is 130 miles, at 5,000 feet 127 miles, and at 10,000 feet 118 
miles per hour respectively. It can climb, under fully laden 
conditions, to 6,000 feet in 55^ minutes, to 10,000 feet in 
n}4 minutes, and to 15,000 feet in 21^ minutes respectively, 
while its landing speed is 48 miles per hour. 

It carries a single passenger, for the comfort of whom 
there is a luxurious arm-chair placed in a totally enclosed 
cabin fitted with triplex glass windows on either side, thus 
affording complete protection against inclement weather and 
wind. Although the maximum speed is 130 miles an hour, 
it may be pointed out that it is not desirable to maintain this 
velocity for any considerable length of time. A cruising 
speed of about 100 miles an hour is preferable, inasmuch as 
this enables a marked economy in the fuel consumption to 
be effected. The fuel capacity permits a flight of approxi- 
mately 400 miles to be made at no miles an hour at an 
altitude of 5,000 feet. If preferred, the machine can be 
employed for the conveyance of express mail or light cargo. 

236 



Typical British Aeroplanes of To-Day 

It is only necessary to remove the passenger's seat, which 
frees 23 cubic feet for this purpose, enabling a load of 
450 lbs. to be carried, together with full complement of 
fuel. 

This model has proved highly successful in operation. 
One gentleman, who is well-known in business circles, is 
utilising it to a considerable extent in the conduct of affairs 
between his London central house and provincial branches. 
To him the Way of the Air has made particular appeal, 
rendering him totally independent of the railways and roads, 
enabling him to carry out his transactions with the utmost 
expedition, which in his particular case is of distinct 
moment. 

It has been suggested that the aeroplane will find a 
useful field of application in tropical countries, where com- 
petitive methods of locomotion are scanty and services 
indifferent. Doubtless this will prove to be the case, but 
probably many of the enthusiastic advocates of this applica- 
tion have overlooked the fact that the machine will demand to 
be specially built for such duty, and that it will be dangerous, 
if not impracticable, to rely upon wood as a structural 
material. The penchant of the white ant for wood must not 
be forgotten. The manufacturing organisation at Filton has 
been devoting especial study to this possible application, and, 
accordingly, some time ago set out to design and build an 
all-metal aeroplane. The suggestion is by no means new, 
because the question of the all-metal dynamic machine has 
been discussed academically for some years past, but the 
British and Colonial Aeroplane Company is the first to 
carry the idea into practical effect. This represents further 
pioneering, because the substitution of the familiar and 
generally accepted wood by metal has involved new designs 

237 



All About Aircraft of To-Day 

and calculations as well as the solution of other technical 
problems. Nevertheless, the "Bristol" all-metal biplane has 
convincingly proved the practicability of the idea and that 
it can be carried into practical commercial effect without 
appreciably adding to the weight of the machine. Tests 
have also revealed the fact that performance is in no way 
affected by such a deviation from the generally accepted 
practice. Apart from the fact that an all-metal machine — 
the wings, of course, are excepted, investigation not having 
yet succeeded in replacing fabric by metal — extends many 
advantages, the most salient of which are increased 
durability and enhanced security from fire, it is also more 
readily applicable to violent extremes of climate, such as the 
intense heat of the tropics and the severe cold experienced 
in the polar regions. 

Metal is used throughout. The component parts of the 
wings — edges, spars, ribs and so on — are built up of 
aluminium and high-tensile steel, the dimensions of which 
have been modified to meet the new conditions. The 
interplane and other struts are of high-tensile steel, while 
the fuselage is a special construction of aluminium and thin 
steel. The use of metal imparts a more slender tout ensemble, 
from the ability to decrease the dimensions of the visible 
members, such as the interplane struts and the under- 
carriage, but symmetry of form and gracefulness of line are 
fully retained if not actually enhanced. 

This model has a tip-to-tip wing span of 42 feet 2 inches 
and a wing chord of 6 feet. It is fitted with a single 
"Viper" Hispano-Suiza aeromotor developing 170 horse- 
power, giving the machine a maximum speed near the 
ground of 105 miles an hour. The over-all length is 27 feet, 
while the maximum height is 10 feet 3 inches. Empty, the 

238 



Typical British Aeroplanes of To-Day 

machine weighs 1,700 lbs., while loaded and ready for 
service the weight is 2,870 lbs. The wing area is 458 
square feet, the loading thereof being 613 lbs. per 
square foot, while the loading per brake-horse-power is 
i6# lbs. 

The machine is able to climb to 5,000 feet in 8 minutes 
and occupies 20 minutes to rise to 10,000 feet. At the 
former altitude the speed is 100 miles per hour, while at 
10,000 feet it is 93 miles per hour. However, the economical 
cruising speed at 5,000 feet is 85 miles per hour, at which 
speed the fuel capacity is sufficient to enable a non-stop flight 
exceeding 500 miles to be made. 

Seating accommodation is provided for two passengers 
in addition to the pilot. For the former is a roomy cabin 
completely enclosed to assure full protection from the 
weather. For sight-seeing purposes glazed windows of 
safety glass are provided. Here, again, if desired, the 
passenger accommodation may be removed to permit the 
machine to be used for the conveyance of mails or light 
cargo, the available space being approximately 40 cubic feet. 
In addition to the pilot a useful load of 450 lbs. may be 
carried. 

The foregoing by no means exhaust the commercial 
proposals of the company in question. Other "Bristol" 
models have been elaborated to meet varying requirements, 
and in the preparation of these designs vital factors of 
running and maintenance charges have been carefully 
studied. Some of these designs have been so advanced as 
to permit construction to be taken in hand the moment 
commercial exigencies demand, and to meet any particular 
phase of development which may arise. Those described 
in detail, however, represent the contemporary producing 

239 



All About Aircraft of To-Day 

activity for the world of business and are proving highly 
satisfactory in operation from every point of view. 

The Martinsyde Aeroplanes 

Another firm of aeroplane builders, which formed one of 
the small army of pioneers who sought to popularise not only 
flying in Britain but domestic construction during the 
apathetic days of a decade ago, is that whose fortunes are 
identified with the Martinsyde machines, built at Woking, 
in Surrey. A short time previous to the cessation of 
hostilities the enemy found himself harassed by a new and 
"nippy" super-fighting scout, which taxed his counter 
tactics in the air to no mean degree. This was the Martin- 
syde "Buzzard." It created a sensation owing to its speed, 
climbing qualities, and power of manoeuvre. 

Subsequent consideration pointed to the fact that, by 
carrying out certain slender modifications, this machine 
might be rendered exceedingly attractive for certain phases 
of commercial or pleasure flying. The modifications in 
question are confined to specific details, because it would be 
difficult to imagine a more trying test for a flying machine 
than that of scouting over hostile territory where the 
enemy's defensive measures, both from the ground and in 
the air, are naturally encountered in their most formidable 
form. Consequently, so far as structural considerations are 
concerned, this machine has suffered no alteration. Being of 
exceptional strength and high speed, it can be flown safely 
under any atmospheric conditions and can bid defiance to 
the wildest storms. For this reason it will appeal to the 
skilled and experienced aviator, drawn to the air from sheer 
love of flying, or who, owing to business exigencies, finds 
it imperative to cover long distances in the shortest space of 

240 



Typical British Aeroplanes of To-Day 

time, irrespective of meteorological conditions. To the 
sporting aviator it will make especial appeal, as it will be 
found to offer him all the delights he can possibly desire, and 
enable him to carry out those "stunts" in which, under war 
conditions, he possibly excelled "On Service." 

This quondam motor-driven pugnacious hornet is known 
in its new form as the "Sporting" Martinsyde. It is a single- 
seater with its remarkable high speed factor fully maintained, 
both in regard to straight flight and climbing prowess. It 
is a small biplane, having a tip-to-tip wing span of 32 feet 
9 inches, an over-all length of 25 feet 6 inches, and height 
to tip of two-bladed propeller when vertical, of 10 feet 4 
inches. 

It is fitted with a Rolls-Royce "Falcon" 280 horse- 
power motor, and the carrying capacity, over and above fuel 
supply for 2^ hours continuous flight, which is sufficient to 
cover approximately 300 miles, is 350 lbs. The flying 
capabilities of this machine are certainly startling, as may be 
gathered from the following details : 

Maximum speed at 10,000 ft., 142 1 miles per hour. 
„ „ 15,000 „ 136I 

„ „ 20,000 „ 126 „ „ 

Its climbing speeds are not less striking as may be realised 
from the time occupied in gaining the following altitudes 
from the ground, these being : 

Climb to 6,000 ft. 3 mins. 40 sees. = 1,636.3 ft. per minute. 
10,000 „ 6 „ 40 „ = 1,500 „ „ 

Accordingly, the owner of this machine secures as 
complete a command of the air as he can possibly desire 
to gratify his sporting proclivities. For normal purposes, 
Q 241 



All About Aircraft of To-Day 

however, the cruising speed would probably prove more 
attractive, if only for the economy in petrol consumption it 
offers. Still, this approaches a velocity of 2 miles a minute 
at 5,000 feet altitude, being, at two-thirds full power, no 
miles an hour. The machine lands easily at 45 miles an 
hour. It was this single-seater biplane which established the 
Paris — London sensation flight by covering the 215 miles 
between the two capitals in 75 minutes — an average speed 
of 180 miles an hour — a mile in twenty seconds! 

In striking contrast to the sporting model is the Martin- 
syde "A" commercial aeroplane which conforms more 
closely with the prevailing interpretation of a biplane 
designed and built for the requirements of passenger and 
freight traffic. As a passenger-carrier it has accommodation 
for three, four, or five passengers according to requirements, 
while, when devoted to the utilitarian duty of cargo-carrier, 
it is able to transport nearly one ton of freight. 

The over-all span, tip-to-tip of wing is 43 feet, while the 
machine measures 27 feet 4 inches from end to end. The 
height to tip of propeller is 10 feet 10 inches. The aeromotor 
is either a Rolls-Royce " Falcon " or " Eagle " according to 
the proposed class of traffic, the former being advocated for 
passenger, and the latter for cargo-carrying duty respectively, 
though, of course, if preferred, either engine can be installed 
to meet the requirements of mixed traffic. With the former 
aeromotor, however, the carrying capacity is 1,800 lbs., while 
the latter and more powerful engine enables a load of 2,240 
lbs. to be carried; but, no matter which aeromotor is 
used, the radius of action is identical, namely, six hours' 
continuous flight at a cruising speed of 100 miles an hour, 
which represents two-thirds of the power available. 

If fitted with the " Falcon " engine the machine would 
242 



Typical British Aeroplanes of To-Day 

be able to carry, in addition to the pilot, from two to four 
passengers, according to the weight and quantity of 
attendant luggage or load. Of course, if used solely as a 
cargo-carrier the seating accommodation would be dispensed 
with, the whole of the space being released for freight, while 
for mixed traffic only part of the passenger accommodation 
would be removed. This biplane has been designed essen- 
tially for commercial purposes, and although its travelling 
speed is high, even at two-thirds full power, It is not endowed 
with sensational climbing powers. Nevertheless, it can 
climb at the rate of 500 feet per minute with full load, while 
the landing speed is low, being between 35 and 40 miles an 
hour. 

This is the type of machine entered for the trans-Atlantic 
flight from Newfoundland to England, with Raynham at the 
wheel, whigh met with an unfortunate train of mishaps before 
rising into the air, leading to the ultimate abandonment of 
the journey. For the purposes of this 1,880 miles' continuous 
flight a special and very large tank was fitted into the space 
normally provided for the stowage of cargo, the fuel capacity 
of this reservoir being, adequate to enable the machine to 
remain aloft for 25 hours at the cruising speed of 100 miles 
an hour, leaving a reserve of speed of 27 miles an hour, 
since it is able to notch 127 miles an hour with the engine 
all out. 

What might be described as a compromise, or "Between 
Model," is the Martinsyde two-seater, or single passenger 
carrier. In reality it is a miniature of the commercial type, 
most of the parts being interchangeable therewith. The 
fuselage is so built as to accommodate both pilot and pas- 
senger comfortably, ample protection for both being ex- 
tended, while, if desired, the passenger's cabin may be 

243 



All About Aircraft of To-Day 

completely enclosed. Travelling and climbing speeds are 
approximately the same as those of the sporting model 
already described, and it will appeal to the man in a hurry, 
and will be found to meet those occasions when "air-haste" 
travel is imperative. The biplane is equipped with a Rolls- 
Royce "Falcon " engine, the duration of the flight or endur- 
ance being set down at approximately 4% hours, during 
which time it will cover about 500 miles. 

The Boulton-Paul Aeroplanes 

Among the machines which were created directly by the 
war and which proved to be surprising from the startling 
character of their performance must be mentioned those 
which were designed at, and which issued from, the Norwich 
aircraft works of Messrs. Boulton & Paul, Limited. One, 
the "Boulton Bourge " gave a somewhat remarkable demon- 
stration at Hendon. A twin-engined biplane, with a wing 
span of 54 feet, weighing with full load 6,000 lbs., and 
having a maximum speed of 124 miles an hour, it is able to 
loop the loop, side roll, spin — in short, it can fulfil all the 
evolutions which are generally held to be possible of regular 
performance only by the small fighting scouts. This 
"stunt" capacity is due to the strikingly efficient design of 
the machine, enabling it to withstand all the severe strains 
involved in the execution of such manoeuvres. 

This eminently successful machine has now been repro- 
duced in a broadly similar commercial form, although 
the peace model is somewhat larger in all dimensions, 
heavier, of greater carrying capacity, and has a higher turn 
of speed. It is a twin-engine biplane with a wing span, tip 
to tip, of 59 feet. The chord of the top wing is 8 feet and 
of the bottom wing 6 feet, the wing area being 770 square 

244 



Typical British Aeroplanes of To-Day 

feet. The over-all length is 40 feet, while it is 12 feet 4 inches 
in height. The power installation comprises two Napier 
aeromotors, each developing 450 horse-power. Its total 
weight, empty, is 4,000 lbs., while fully loaded, ready for 
flight, it weighs 7,000 lbs. — a little in excess of three 
tons. 

Its travelling and climbing speeds are somewhat striking, 
especially the former, because, with full load aboard, it is able 
to reach a maximum of 149 miles an hour at 10,000 feet and 
142 miles an hour at 15,000 feet, its ascensional limit or 
"ceiling" under these conditions being 25,000 feet. When 
fully loaded this biplane is able to climb to 10,000 feet in 
8 minutes, and to 15,000 feet in 15 minutes — 1,250 feet and 
1,000 feet per minute respectively. The landing speed is 
54 miles an hour, and radius of action, upon the one fuel 
charge, is 3 hours' continuous flight. 

This machine is designed to carry eight passengers and 
half a ton of mails. It was entered for the trans-Atlantic 
flight, the passenger compartment being stripped in order to 
receive additional petrol carrying tanks. By this arrange- 
ment sufficient fuel was stowed aboard to carry the machine 
3,800 miles, or a non-stop flight of 32 hours' duration at an 
average speed of approximately two miles a minute. The 
trans-Atlantic crossing, however, was abandoned following 
the sensational journey of Sir John Alcock. 

Another commercial aeroplane which has been designed 
by this company, the "Busibus," is of quite a different char- 
acter. It is a single-engined two-seater biplane the wing, 
span of which is only 25 feet from tip to tip, the chord of the 
top and bottom wings being 5 feet, and the total wing area 
255 square feet. It is less than half the size of its big brother, 
the over-all length being 19 feet, while it is only 8 feet in 
245 



All About Aircraft of To-Day 

height. In the empty condition it weighs 1,000 lbs. — less 
than half a ton — while with full load aboard, and in running 
order, ready for proceeding aloft, it weighs 1,460 lbs., which 
is well below the 14 cwt. mark. 

In the fully-loaded condition it climbs to a height of 5,000 
feet in 9 minutes. At an altitude of 1,000 feet under the 
same weight conditions it has a speed of 103 miles per hour, 
while it can remain aloft for 2% hours on one full charge 
of the tanks. The landing speed is comparatively low, being 
45 miles per hour. 

This machine is designed for what may be described as 
limited commercial service. It is relatively cheap, costing 
complete only ^600. It might almost be described as the 
aerial counterpart of the runabout motor-car, and will prove 
eminently serviceable for cross-country travelling, where the 
road services are notoriously infrequent and slow, and 
also for duty in sparsely settled territories, the communities 
in which are somewhat isolated. It is likely to make appeal 
to those who are disposed to indulge in pleasure flying, upon 
a limited scale, for private service, or for single passenger 
commercial journeys — the aerial taxi-cab of the countryside 
as one might perhaps term it. As an indication of what may 
be done in this direction, by way of the air, the builders of 
this handy little machine use one to travel across country 
when it is necessary for a passenger to make a certain town 
or other centre as quickly as possible, and which. otherwise is 
not possible of access except by a roundabout or prolonged 
and tedious railway journey. As a matter of fact, for short 
distance journeys of this character, where time is a con- 
sideration, there is a decided opening for the small, easily- 
handled aerial runabout, of which the "Busibus" may be 
said to be an attractive illustration. 

246 



Typical British Aeroplanes of To-Day 

The "Vimy" Aeroplane 

Undoubtedly the aeroplane which caused the greatest 
sensation during the year 1919 was the "Vimy," emanating 
from the Weybridge aeroplane works of Messrs. Vickers, 
Limited, the well-known armament manufacturers and ship- 
builders. It burst upon commercial aviation circles in a 
startlingly dramatic manner by crossing the Atlantic at an 
average speed of nearly two miles a minute. It startled the 
world for the simple reason that it was an unknown quantity, 
practically nothing having been heard of the machine pre- 
vious to this remarkable achievement. The " Vimy " was one 
of the surprises of the war, numbers having been built for, 
and supplied to, the authorities once it had established its 
possibilities and performance, its designed purpose being 
long-range bombing. 

This machine has also served to bring home to the world 
at large the beneficial and upbuilding, or sinister, duty to 
which the dynamic flying machine can be applied as con- 
ditions demand, and with what promptitude an aeroplane can 
be transformed from one range of service to the other. In 
other words, it emphasises how an aeroplane flying to-day, 
bearing passengers and merchandise upon a peaceful mission, 
can be converted into a deadly weapon of destruction within 
an hour or two — that the aeroplane is really a military unit 
in commercial garb. To effect the transition it is only neces- 
sary to change the body, an operation that can be effected 
very quickly if so made as to be interchangeable. But unless 
this interchangeability constitutes an outstanding feature 
conversion is likely to prove a somewhat dangerous practice. 
From this it is apparent that the aeroplane to be of real 
national utility must be built for the one service, notably 

247 



All About Aircraft of To-Day 

military duty, and be used for the other or commercial 
use. 

This is the theory which at present obtains in certain 
circles; whether it will be substantiated in actual practice 
remains to be proved. The only analogy which can be drawn 
to this particular line of thought is in connection with the 
high-speed ocean liner, held in reserve to be converted into 
an armed cruiser when the emergency arises, but in which 
application, as experience has proved, it has distinct limita- 
tions. Whether the same will apply to the air it is as yet 
impossible to say. At the moment the aeroplane as a weapon 
of attack has gained the ascendancy over defence, but now 
that the study of the latter problem in its military aspect 
and in all its bearings may be conducted at leisure, with more 
concentration of thought, it is not improbable that the present 
state of affairs will undergo a complete reversal and bring 
home the fact that an aeroplane for war service must be of 
special design and construction to enable it to withstand 
all and every aerial opposition which it is likely to encounter. 
This is an issue which time alone can prove. Sufficient for 
the moment is the knowledge that the "Vimy" aeroplane 
is fundamentally a military arm, and that the sole modifica- 
tion between the "Vimy" bomber and the "Vimy" com- 
mercial flying machine rests with the fuselage. 

The significance of this interchangeability of the body is 
reflected in both the "Vimy" commercial and trans-Atlantic 
models, and being both transformed bombers, they are prac- 
tically identical. Consequently the description of one applies 
to the other. The tip-to-tip wing span is 67 feet, gap 
10 feet, and chord 18 feet 6 inches. From end to end the 
machine measures 42 feet 8 inches, while the over-all height 
is 15 feet 3 inches. 

248 



Typical British Aeroplanes of To-Day 

This biplane is of the twin-screw type, the propelling 
effort being imparted by two Rolls-Royce "Eagle" Mark 
VIII. engines each of 375 horse-power, giving a total output 
of 750 horse-power. Should one engine give out completely 
the machine can be kept going at a speed of 70 miles an 
hour with the other. The maximum speed is 100 miles, 
cruising speed 90 miles, and landing speed 45 miles an hour 
respectively. Sufficient petrol is carried to permit a con- 
tinuous non-stop flight of five hours, but should an increased 
radius of action — endurance as it is termed in aero language 
— be required, it can be secured by fitting extra tanks. The 
factor of safety is 5, which means that the machine has been 
so designed and built as to secure five times the strength 
really necessary for normal flying conditions. 

One interesting feature of the "Vimy" commercial fuse- 
lage is the novel principle of its construction, which is totally 
different from that usually practised. It is built upon what 
is known as the " Monocoque " system. Instead of the body 
being built up in the usual manner, the shell of the cabin is 
attached to oval wooden rings of box section. These rings 
are of three-ply wood, are very light, but at the same time 
of immense strength. The shell, or cover, forming the cabin 
is made of what is described as Consuta patent, an entirely 
new principle superseding three-ply, and is the speciality of 
Messrs. S. E. Saunders, Limited, the well-known boat 
builders of Cowes, Isle of Wight, who are now allied with 
the Vickers Company. Thus it will readily be recognised 
that the building of the car of the aeroplane is becoming 
recognised as belonging to the boat-building craft, which is 
not so surprising, seeing that immense strength is required 
with lightness and that the form of the body should offer 
as slight resistance to the air as does the boat to the water. 

249 



All About Aircraft of To-Day 

This principle of fabrication entails the employment of the 
use of thin layers of selected wood, the grain being placed 
diagonally. They are glued and sewn together, the rows of 
stitching running parallel and spaced about \% inches apart. 

Owing to this material being extremely strong a high 
factor of safety is given to the whole construction of the 
cabin. Moreover, it enables cross-bracing wires, such as are 
essential to the usual form of fuselage, to be dispensed with 
entirely, and the absence of these stays adds very materially 
to the comfort of the passenger accommodation. There is 
another advantage accruing from this departure from general 
practice. The cabin being like a boat, the machine, if forced 
to the water, will float on an even keel. The water cannot 
penetrate the cabin, since the doors are so made as to be 
completely watertight. Consequently the requirements of 
"Safety first," so imperative in matters pertaining to aero- 
plane construction to secure the confidence of the public, 
and to which I have made extended reference in another 
chapter, is appreciably enhanced. With the ordinary aero- 
plane, as distinct from the seaplane, which is equipped with 
floats instead of a wheeled carriage, a forced descent upon 
the water is viewed with misgivings by the pilot, inasmuch 
as the machine is likely to be lost; at all events, the fuselage 
becomes untenable because it suffers submergence. For this 
reason a cabin so built as to present the property of floating 
for an indefinite period is certain to meet with wholehearted 
appreciation by those who have to go up to the air in aero- 
planes. Two pilots are carried on this craft, seated side by 
side, the cock-pit being placed up high in the nose, from 
which point a wide range of vision is assured. 

The cabin is completely enclosed. There is seating 
capacity for ten passengers, the arm-chairs being disposed 

250 



Typical British Aeroplanes of To-Day 

on either side of a central gangway. There is also ample 
space between the seats so that the passengers are not 
crowded in any way. As a matter of fact the commodious 
cabin accommodation of the "Vimy" commercial flying 
machine constitutes an outstanding feature. At one end of 
the cabin cupboards are provided for the reception of light 
hand-luggage. A window is conveniently placed to each 
seat, so that the passenger is able to secure a sweeping view 
of the earth beneath from the comfort of the arm-chair. Those 
who are interested in the latest conditions of travelling, who 
may be somewhat curious to learn at what height and at 
what speed they are travelling, will find the height and 
speed recorders prominently displayed in the cabin a source 
of interest. Ventilation and heating can be adjusted to meet 
the temperature conditions prevailing, while special arrange- 
ments have been incorporated to deaden the noise and to 
eliminate vibration. A final touch of completeness is im- 
parted by the provision of telephonic communication between 
the passengers and the pilot. 

While this vessel has been primarily evolved for the con- 
veyance of passengers, it can be readily and promptly con- 
verted into a freighter or adapted to any other desired phase 
of industrial duty. The arm-chairs can be detached and 
removed in a few minutes, and when this is done the cabin 
presents a clear floor area of 53 square feet and a measure- 
ment space of 300 cubic feet. Within this space can be 
stowed 2,500 pounds, or a little more than 1 ton, of cargo, 
which can be kept quite dry and at an even temperature. 

It is maintained in many quarters that the aeroplane, 
the moment it establishes its reliability in the commercial 
sense, will be used extensively for the carriage of a certain 
class of mail — express letters and parcels. To stimulate the 

251 



All About Aircraft of To-Day 

adaptation of the aeroplane to this duty, and to enable it 
to compete with the accepted mediums for the transport of 
postal matter, the cabin can be equipped with sorting-boxes, 
thereby permitting the mail to be sorted en route along the 
lines followed in the travelling post offices attached to our 
railway trains. Arrangements have also been introduced 
to permit the dropping of mail-bags where necessary 
between terminal stations by the aid of parachutes. 

The "Vimy" aeroplane which successfully flew the 
Atlantic at 117^ miles an hour was identical with the com- 
mercial type except for one or two slight modifications neces- 
sary to equip it for a journey involving such an exacting 
test of endurance. The capacity of the petrol tanks was 
increased to 865 gallons and of the lubricating oil tanks to 
50 gallons. In this way the radius of action upon the one 
fuel charge was increased to 2,440 miles — a margin of 
approximately 30 per cent, in excess of the actual air-line 
flight, which was 1,880 miles. It was anticipated that an 
average cruising speed of 90 miles an hour would be main- 
tained, this being an economical speed in relation "to fuel 
consumption, in which event the journey would have occu- 
pied about 21 hours, and accordingly the successful crossing 
of the stretch of open ocean in 15 hours 57 minutes, at a 
speed approaching 2 miles a minute, was decidedly 
sensational. 

The "Vimy" contestant for the ;£ 10,000 prize offered by 
the Daily Mail for the first direct flight across the Atlantic 
shot up from the flying ground at St. John's, Newfound- 
land, with Captain John Alcock, D.F.C., at the wheel, 
accompanied by Lieutenant Arthur Whitten Brown as 
navigator at 4.28 Greenwich mean time on the afternoon 
of Saturday, June 14, 1919. It was a daring start because the 

252 



Typical British Aeroplanes of To-Day 

wind was blowing at 40 miles an hour ; but seeing that it was 
due west, and so was behind the machine, it was decidedly- 
favourable once the aeroplane had risen into the air. At 
the time the ascent was made the aeroplane weighed 5 tons, 
2,% tons of which was represented by the fuel and lubricating 
oil. Gaining flying speed, a quick climb to 1,000 feet was 
made, and once the navigator had determined the course 
the engine was throttled down, the wind being in her favour, 
and she was allowed to climb as she liked, in this way 
notching a height of about 4,000 feet by nightfall. 

The journey was as exhilarating as one could desire. 
The machine assumed a level between two superimposed 
layers of clouds, one bank scudding along 2,000 feet above 
the water and the other drifting at 6,000 feet. Consequently 
sea, horizon and sun were blotted out during the evening 
and the stars and moon after darkness had fallen, rendering 
it impossible to check the course by observation with the 
sextant. Accordingly the navigator had to rely upon dead 
reckoning. It was not until the machine had been travelling 
for nearly eight hours that a glimpse was caught of Polaris 
and Vega, and although the clouds only opened up for a 
few seconds the interval was sufficiently long to permit the 
navigator to take a reading by the stars and to determine the 
extent of drift, which up to this point had been an x quantity. 
The course was now checked and adjusted in order to bring 
the machine on the line which had been plotted upon the 
chart. 

In the grey murky dawn the aeroplane ran into a thick 
bank of fog, and this proved to be the worst stretch of the 
whole journey. Snow, rain and sleet were encountered in fitful 
turns, and the temperature being low the speed indicator was 
thrown out of action through becoming jammed by the ice 

253 



All About Aircraft of To-Day 

which settled on it, the last reading it gave before breaking 
down being 90 miles an hour. Owing to the fog being 
impenetrable and all sense of horizon being lost, the aviators 
were now the sport of the forces of Nature, and, according 
to their own impressions, some unexpected evolutions were 
performed, including inadvertent looping of the loop, steep 
spiralling, and a sharp nose dive which brought the machine 
perilously near the water. The passing glimpse of the grey 
sea gave the pilot his horizon once more, though when it 
was gained the machine was lying on its back, having turned 
over unknown to the aviators, which, by the way, is a very 
common trick of the aeroplane when flying in dense fog. 
The sudden descent, however, had not been an unmixed 
blessing. It released the speed indicator of the icy shackles 
which had been holding it fast, and thus resumed its normal 
function. A quick climb was made to 6,000 feet, where 
another fog bank was encountered. The pilot decided to 
get above this and so ascent was continued, an altitude of 
11,000 feet ultimately being reached, but not the top of the 
cloud bank, which at that point was from 2 to 3 miles thick. 
But hail and snow were encountered, covering the machine 
with ice. 

The conditions well up not being at all favourable, 
another descent was made, the machine coming to within 
300 feet of the water. But no sight of the sun was caught, 
no glimpse of a passing vessel, while the air was uncannily 
silent, inasmuch as no wireless messages were received 
although there was a wireless equipment aboard. After 
ploughing through this thick weather, along a switchback 
course, a dark cloud was descried on the horizon about nine 
o'clock on the Sunday morning. It loomed up suddenly out 
of the fog. A second hurried glance sufficed to confirm the 

254 



Typical British Aeroplanes of To-Day 

aviators that they were approaching the coast of Ireland. 
Then the slim, lofty masts of the CI if den wireless station were 
descried, were circled, and the machine brought down in a 
bog, which from aloft seemed as stable as any green meadow 
ever could be. The landing was made at 8.40 a.m. Green- 
wich mean time Sunday morning, June 15th, 1919. The 
direct flight across the Atlantic had been accomplished, and 
the ;£ 10,000 duly and deservedly won. 

Although this did not represent the first crossing of the 
Atlantic by air, the American aviator, Lieutenant Com- 
mander Read, U.S.N., having completed the journey fifteen 
days previously in stages by way of the Azores and Lisbon 
to Plymouth, occupying nearly 16 days in the effort, to 
ensure which elaborate precautions had been taken, the 
Alcock-Brown flight with the "Vimy" was far more remark- 
able. Not only did it represent the spanning of the tem- 
pestuous Atlantic as the bird flies, but the mileage covered 
between the Old and New Worlds in the non-stop flight was 
greater than the longest lap on the Azores route, which was 
1,381 miles between Trepassey Bay, Newfoundland, and 
Ponta Delgada, Azores. Thus the northern flight was 
499 miles longer, while the tax imposed upon the machine 
and also the physical endurance of the aviators was far more 
excessive owing to the extremely adverse climatic conditions 
ruling over the North Atlantic. 

The Avro Aeroplane 

The French ushered in the era of commercial flying with 
the aviation meeting held at Rheims in 1909, which attracted 
crowds from all parts of the world. Britain was not far 
behind, a similar attraction being held shortly afterwards at 
Blackpool, at which one British experimenter made a bold 

255 



All About Aircraft of To-Day 

bid for recognition. This was Mr. A. V. Roe. He appeared 
with a triplane which created intense interest, though scarcely 
in the manner anticipated by the creator. The machine 
capered upon the ground in a furious manner, and appeared 
to be so dangerous as to be promptly and facetiously nick- 
named "The Yellow Peril " by the crowd, which became 
highly amused at its efforts to fly. 

But the indefatigable British pioneer exacted a revenge, 
and became proof against banter and ridicule; he rose 
supreme to difficulty. To-day there are few machines so 
familiar to the man in the street as the "Avro" biplane, and 
it certainly has earned a distinctive reputation. When war 
broke out it was found that, by virtue of his dogged perse- 
verance, Mr. Roe had contrived a design which was dis- 
covered to be wonderfully correct. In the days when we were 
weak in the Third Arm, the authorities were compelled to 
acknowledge the work of an inventor who had been relent- 
lessly ridiculed, and whose run of luck has been notoriously 
unfortunate. The Avro biplane was used for bombing, fight- 
ing, reconnoitring — in short, every military purpose. It was 
a wasp of this type which sealed the fate of one of the mighty 
Zeppelins in which the Germans had placed such implicit 
trust, while it was also this type of craft which undertook the 
momentous raid upon the Zeppelin sheds at Friedrichshafen 
during the early days of the war. 

When the authorities realised that aeroplanes would be 
required in the thousands, and that it would be necessary 
to raise pilots by the tens of thousands, the question of 
training fighting bird-men aroused earnest consideration. 
Naturally, from the delicacy and danger of the work, a 
machine of indisputable reliability would be required. Survey 
demonstrated that the formerly much-maligned and bantered 

256 




The " Boblink " small fast pa: 



lghting scout. 




The heavy passenger-mail carrier, with a seating accommodation for eight passengers 

and half-a-ton of mail, having a maximum speed of 149 miles an hour — a remarkable 

heavy twin-engine biplane. 




The " Busibus " two-seater, costing '£600, adapted to fast cross-country and short- 
distance travelling. 

THE BOULTON AND PAUL COMMERCIAL AEROPLANES 



Typical British Aeroplanes of To-Day 

but war-tried Avro biplane was best adapted to this exacting 
duty. 

Forthwith the machine in question was withdrawn from 
the fighting arena and utilised exclusively for training pur- 
poses, becoming the sole school machine of the Royal Air 
Force. It was eminently adapted for this vital phase of 
service. It is, above all things, stable and safe, easy to fly, 
while the dual control materially facilitates the task of the 
instructor. Moreover, it is an ideal machine wherewith to 
master the mysteries of aerobatics. Certainly there were an 
unfortunate number of accidents during training, but the 
cause was generally attributable to the excessive zeal of the 
pupil, naturally disposed to take extreme risks, rather than 
to the machine. With a less reliable craft the casualty list 
would have been much longer, and if the roll be considered 
in comparison with the number of flights made, the results 
are certainly favourable to the machine. Some idea of the 
demand which was imposed to satisfy official training re- 
quirements may be gathered from the fact that this machine 
was built in far greater numbers than any other aeroplane 
in the world. Altogether 10,000 Avro biplanes were built 
and supplied to the R.A.F. during the war. 

Upon the initiation of the civil flying era in Britain, the 
Avro made a bold bid for popular favour. Joy-riding was 
introduced at our popular pleasure resorts, and it is the Avro 
which has attained the highest degree of appreciation in 
this connection. "Joy-flying" was a great attraction during 
the "peace" (1919) summer season at thirty of our leading 
pleasure centres, Hounslow and Blackpool being the most 
notable. In this application the Avro has repeated the per- 
formance for safety and reliability which it achieved during 
the war : upwards of 20,000 passengers having been treated 
R 257 



All About Aircraft of To-Day 

to the novel experience of aerial travel during the first three 
months following the inauguration of these novel services, 
which have done much to educate the uninitiated public to the 
claims of the Way of the Air. 

The Handley-Page Aeroplane 
Probably few large aeroplanes are so familiar to the resi- 
dents of the City of London and the Home Counties as those 
issuing from the Handley-Page aerodrome. It may truly 
be described as the Condor of the air in so far as the artificial 
birds are concerned. What is probably the most remarkable 
feature concerning this vessel is that war exercised but little 
influence upon its design except towards the "colossal." It 
was found to be eminently adapted for a certain range of 
duty, and was reserved for that work. And the type which 
became standardised as it were to meet the needs of war is 
being similarly standardised to satisfy the calls of commerce, 
the only modifications of moment introduced being the sub- 
stitution of the necessaries of peace for those associated with 
war. These machines are most impressive from their huge 
dimensions. They may not be so fast as their smaller 
brothers — mosquitoes of the air — but what they lack in speed 
is more than counterbalanced by their carrying capacity, 
which is high. 

The twin-engine or smaller biplane, which was reserved 
for carrying out night-bombing operations, has a tip-to-tip 
wing span of ioo feet. Its over-all length is 63 feet, while 
it is 23 feet in height. In the empty condition it weighs 
8,000 lbs., and 14,000 lbs. fully loaded with petrol, oil, 
pilot, and passengers. The useful load, either of passengers 
or cargo, is 4,500 lbs. — two tons. There is accommodation 
for twelve passengers in comfort, while eight more, making 

258 



Typical British Aeroplanes of To-Day 

twenty in all, can be carried if necessary. The seating 
arrangement, however, is for fourteen persons, that is 
according to the latest machines such as have been dispatched 
to China. 

The propelling equipment comprises two 12-cylinder 
Rolls-Royce " Eagle " aeromotors, each developing 350 
horse-power, a total propelling effort of 700 horse- 
power. Sufficient tank capacity is provided to receive 
300 gallons of petrol, 150 gallons in each of two tanks. In 
the commercial type the arrangement of the tanks is some- 
what interesting. They have been removed from the 
fuselage to be mounted in line with and behind each of the 
two aeromotors, each engine and its tank thus forming one 
complete unit. The tank is made to coincide with the over- 
all width and height dimensions of the engine, so as to be 
enclosed in the one cover, and is given a pointed stern. This 
arrangement imparts to the driving unit the appearance of a 
large torpedo, but at the same time enhances the symmetrical 
and graceful general appearance of the biplane. While the 
tank is placed only a few inches abaft the aerometer it is 
fully protected from the heat radiated from the latter by 
means of a substantial dividing, wall, or partition, of asbestos, 
so that all danger from fire is completely eliminated. 

The petrol consumption of the twin-engine craft ranges 
between 40 and 50 gallons per hour, which is adequate to 
give a non-stop endurance ranging from 6 to 7^ hours. The 
maximum air speed is 95 miles an hour, though the touring 
air speed is 85 miles an hour. Should one engine break 
down the biplane is able to continue flight, though at a re- 
duced speed, on the other aeromotor. 

Practically the whole of the interior of the fuselage is 
converted into a saloon for passengers. The diagonal brac- 

259 



All About Aircraft of To-Day 

ing wires have been removed in favour of substantial V- 
struts. In this way not only is more free space provided for 
passengers, but the machine itself is appreciably strength- 
ened. The seats are disposed on either side of a central 
gangway, while communication between the ground and the 
saloon is afforded by a door set abaft the engines. The 
depth of the fuselage at all parts is adequate to permit the 
tallest passenger to stand upright with ease, there being 
plenty of headroom, while ample natural illumination is 
afforded by side windows conveniently placed beside the seats 
allowing the occupants a wide view from the comfort of their 
seats. Electric lighting and heating amenities are also pro- 
vided. Owing to the large dimensions of the machine there 
is no discomfort from vibration when in the air, the biplane 
while in flight being as steady as a rock. 

The load or passenger carrying capacity of this machine 
was first demonstrated in July, 1916, in the course of which 
21 passengers were carried to a height of 7,000 feet over 
London. This was the aeroplane which flew from London 
to Constantinople and back in 191 7, bombing the Turkish 
capital and the disabled Goeben. The machine carried three 
officers and two mechanics, together with baggage, bedding, 
tools, spare parts, including two four-bladed propellers, the 
total weight of the machine thus loaded being over six tons. 
The flight of 2,000 miles involved crossing mountain peaks 
ranging, from 8,000 to 10,000 feet, though the bombing of 
the ultimate objective was carried out from a height of less 
than 800 feet. Owing to the lubricating system of one aero- 
motor suffering disablement from an unlucky shot the return 
journey had to be made on the one engine. 

Since the cessation of hostilities this biplane has placed 
on record many achievements of equal impressiveness. It 

360 



Typical British Aeroplanes of To-Day 

was the first machine to fly to India, the journey in question 
being made from Cairo to Calcutta. In 1919 two vessels of 
the military type were stripped of their fighting impedimenta, 
and the fuselage converted into saloons, the two craft being 
christened respectively H.M. Air Liners Great Britain and 
Silver Star. These were provided for the conveyance, be- 
tween London and Paris, of officials engaged upon the pre- 
paration of the Peace Treaty, and in one month carried 700 
passengers without mishap. On April 19th, 1919, one of 
these machines, piloted by K. R. Parr and Captain Steward, 
with eight passengers aboard, set out from Andover to com- 
plete the aerial circuit of Great Britain. The route plotted 
was to Eastleigh and Dungeness upon the south coast, swing- 
ing northwards from the latter point to traverse the East 
coast, which was made by way of Clacton, Lowestoft, Wad- 
dington, Grimsby, Scarborough, South Shields. Crossing 
to the border the machine flew onwards through Turnhouse 
(Edinburgh) to Longside, Aberdeenshire. Here the nose of 
the machine was turned westwards to make Inverness. Pro- 
ceeding from that point via Loch Ness, Lismore Island was 
picked up. After running due south as far as the Mull of 
Kintyre, the North Channel was flown, and from the Irish 
coast a bee-line was made for Belfast, thence south to Dublin. 
The Irish Sea was now crossed to pick up the Welsh Coast 
at Bardsey Island, cutting across Cardigan Bay to New 
Quay, on to Pembroke, thence across the Bristol Channel to 
Ilfracombe and Bodmin. Here an eastward course was set, 
the homeward run being made by way of Plymouth, Torquay 
and Bournemouth to Andover, which was regained on 
April 22nd. This, the first complete circuit of Great Brftain, 
rivalling the achievement of Lieutenant Conneau "Beau- 
mont," in 191 1 for the circuit of Britain in connection with 

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All About Aircraft of To-Day 

the ;£ 10,000 prize offered by the Daily Mail, was made in 
30 hours, the total distance covered being 1,599 miles. 

The inauguration of civilian flying in this country was 
celebrated by the Handley-Page twin-engine biplane, with 
11 passengers and pilot aboard, making a non-stop flight 
from London to Manchester — 165 miles in 3 hours 40 
minutes, while five days later this machine, with five 
passengers and a consignment of newspapers, flew from 
Manchester by way of Carlisle, Dundee and Aberdeen to 
Montrose, 315 miles non-stop in 4 hours 25 minutes. On 
May 6th another machine of this type, with four passengers, 
pilot and load, made a non-stop flight from London to 
Plymouth and back to Bristol, 310 miles in 5 hours 25 
minutes. Another long non-stop flight was made four days 
later from London to Cardiff and back to Bristol, 250 miles 
in 3 hours 25 minutes. These merely represent the more 
notable flights accomplished by this machine during the 
opening twelve days of the month, several shorter trips, 
ranging up to 230 miles, being successfully accomplished. 
Altogether, within the first fortnight of civilian flying, 
twenty of these H-P machines made flights to all parts of the 
country, totalling 3,329 air-miles. Especially interesting was 
the non-stop night flight from London to Paris carried out 
by the authorities for military experiments, the occupants 
of the machine being in wireless telephonic communication 
with the coast throughout the journey. 

The second commercial model is a large and more power- 
ful type, known in the Service as the "Super-Handley " or 
"Berlin-bomber," having been designed and built especially 
for bombarding the German capital from the air. Although 
several of these machines were completed before the signing 
of the Armistice adverse weather conditions militated against 

262 




a £ 



■a-* 



= 6 "S 



v?KB 



Typical British Aeroplanes of To-Day 

their being put to this duty. Consequently the citizens of 
Berlin have much for which to thank the weather during 
October, 1918. This biplane has a span of 126 feet from 
wing-tip to wing-tip, while it measures 64 feet in length, and 
has a height of 23 feet. In the empty condition it scales 
14,000 lbs. — 6% tons. It will carry 30 passengers com- 
fortably, and 40 passengers if necessary, or cargo, and 3^ 
tons of petrol, its fully laden weight with load ready for the 
air being 28,000 lbs., or 12^ tons. 

The aeromotor equipment comprises four 350 horse-power 
12-cylinder Rolls-Royce "Eagle" engines, representing a 
total propelling effort of 1,400 horse-power. A single tank 
of 1,000 gallons of petrol is fitted, this being adequate to 
ensure a radius of action of 12 hours on the one charge. 
The petrol consumption ranges from 80 to 90 gallons per 
hour, while the maximum air speed is 100 miles an hour; 
cruising speed 90 miles an hour. The engines are disposed 
in pairs, in line parallel with the longitudinal axis of the 
machine, and flight can be maintained upon two aeromotors, 
though, of course, at reduced speed. 

It was the Super-Handley which flew from Ipswich to 
India by way of Egypt, this flight including the negotiation 
of 800 miles of open Mediterranean Sea between Malta and 
Alexandria. Subsequently it made a non-stop flight of 
1,000 miles from Cairo to Baghdad via Damascus. On this 
journey two single-seater aeroplanes were stowed aboard to 
be handed over to a squadron posted near Baghdad, which 
serves to indicate the freight-stowing capacity of this 
machine. It was a biplane of this type which, with 41 pas- 
sengers, rose to a height of nearly 8,000 feet over London. 

Like its smaller sister, this huge plane put up some strik- 
ing flight achievements in this country since May 1st, 1919. 
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All About Aircraft of To-Day 

It signalled the opening of the British civilian flying era on 
that day by flying from Glasgow, with 2 pilots and 

5 passengers, to Folkestone, a distance of 530 air-miles, in 

6 hours 8 minutes, only one intermediate stop being made at 
Hendon. On May 13th this biplane made a flight from 
Belfast to Folkestone, 550 air-miles, with 5 passengers, in 
6 hours 29 minutes, repeating the performance ten days later 
by covering 560 air-miles in 7 hours without a stop — an 
average speed of 80 miles an hour — with 6 passengers 
aboard. On this journey the pilot, while in mid-air, went 
into the engine-room, the machine thus flying uncontrolled 
for 4 minutes. During this self-same month Major Darley 
piloted one of these biplanes from Marston to Biarritz with 
8 passengers aboard, the 600 miles being covered without a 
stop. Another striking flight carried out by a service pilot 
was that over England, the machine remaining in the air 
for 11^ hours without a descent, during which time it 
covered 836 miles. During the month of May the quadruple- 
engine Handley-Page biplanes made seven distinct flights, 
covering in all 4,016 miles. It was a vessel of this type 
which was entered for the Atlantic contest, the only altera- 
tion from the standard equipment being the fitting of an 
additional tank for 1,000 gallons of petrol, thus increasing 
the endurance to 24 hours. However, the weather proved 
antagonistic, and after continued delay the flight was 
abandoned. 

The Handley-Page, especially the four-engined model, 
conveys a vivid sense of power, massiveness and strength. 
The under-carriage alone serves to emphasise this fact, being 
ponderous in design and construction, fitted with four large 
pneumatic-tyred wheels, which when inflated have an over- 
all diameter of about 4 feet. The cost of each of these wheels 

264 



Typical British Aeroplanes of To-Day 

is in the neighbourhood of ,£135, or a round ^540 for the 
four. Nevertheless, despite the enormous span of the wings, 
the vessels can be stowed in relatively small hangars. As 
in the case of the Short seaplane, the wings are hinged, 
allowing them to be folded back against the fuselage upon 
landing preparatory to docking. In this way a very pro- 
nounced saving in space is obtained, the over-all width of 
the twin-engine class being 17 feet 6 inches and of the "Super- 
Handley" 46 feet — about one-half of the extended wing 
measurement. The Chinese authorities have extended their 
appreciation of this machine, numbers of the twin-engine 
model being under construction for the East during the 
middle of 1919, about which time the first completed machine 
was subjected to its final trials, in the course of which it 
carried 18 passengers at a height of 1,500 feet. 

The Sopwith Aeroplanes 

Among the fast machines designed for scouting duties 
in connection with the war, the Sopwith biplanes, notably 
the "Pup," achieved a well-deserved reputation. This type 
has been perpetuated to meet commercial conditions, though 
under the more pacific name of the "Dove." It is a modifica- 
tion of the war machine, and as a two-seater makes an 
attractive small sporting model. It is fitted with a rotary 
engine, the 80 horse-power Le Rhone, and the fuel tank is 
of adequate capacity to assure a three hours' continuous 
flight. 

A little larger machine for high performance is the " Gnu " 
biplane, likewise fitted with a rotary engine, either a B.R.2 
of 200 horse-power or Le Rhone of no horse-power being 
installed therein. The accommodation provided is for two 
passengers in addition to the pilot, the former being seated 

265 



All About Aircraft of To-Day 

behind the latter in a comfortably enclosed saloon, provided 
with safety-glass windows, while there is also space to receive 
60 lbs. of hand baggage. This handy little machine is 
fitted with fuel capacity to permit a full-speed flight of 4 
hours' duration. 

The Sopwith large type commercial aeroplane is repre- 
sented by the "Transport" model. It is a six-seater, four 
passengers being carried in the centre of the machine, while 
the fifth is accommodated in the pilot's cockpit behind the 
wings. If used as a freight carrier space is available for the 
stowage of 1,500 lbs. of cargo. The fuel-tank capacity 
is adequate to carry the machine, if passengers be aboard, 
through a non-stop flight of 6 hours, and of 8 hours if the 
machine be used as a cargo carrier. 

This was the model with which Mr. Hawker sought to 
carry off the distinction of being the first man to fly across 
the Atlantic and, incidentally, to win the Daily Mail ,£10,000 
prize for the feat. In the hope that he might be the first 
to reach Great Britain, he set out from Newfoundland on 
May 18th, 1919, two days after the American competitor, 
Lieutenant Commander Read, took to the air in his machine 
to make a bid for the honour by way of the Azores. Unfor- 
tunately, after covering 1,100 miles Mr. Hawker was forced 
to the water by a mechanical defect, to be picked up by a 
passing vessel, the damaged aeroplane being salvaged by 
another vessel and brought home. 



266 



CHAPTER XV 

The Life-Belt of the Air 

T^OR many years past the parachute has been regarded 
•*• merely as a vehicle wherewith to conduct a thrilling exploit 
in the air — a sideshow for the amusement of the crowds of a 
festival or fete. To have suggested that such a device could 
ever be converted into part and parcel of a flying machine in 
the interests of safety would have been to invite ridicule. How- 
ever, accidents will happen, even to the best-built machines, 
and it is against the unexpected that full protective measures 
must be provided. One does not expect an ocean greyhound 
to founder after she has left port, but that contingency, 
extremely remote though it be, does not preclude the com- 
pulsory installation on board of a variety of devices — rafts, 
collapsible boats and life-belts — ready for the passengers and 
crew at a moment's notice in case of disaster. 

It is somewhat significant to remark that the frequency 
of accidents, which were inevitable owing to lack of know- 
ledge, during the infant days of dynamic flight, was respon- 
sible for the expression of brilliant thought in the devising 
of ingenious life-saving appliances for the air. Aviators 
were naturally keen to save themselves, if at all possible, 
from injury on the precept that the pioneer who survives a 
crash to-day will be able to fly another day. But there was 
a distinct aversion to utilising the conventional parachute for 
this purpose. This was not surprising seeing that the 
267 



All About Aircraft of To-Day 

apparatus is primitive, cumbrous and distinctly uncertain in 
its action, while, even should it work properly, there is a 
disconcerting, initial period of inefficiency, permitting a fall 
of several hundred feet, before it comes into operation, and 
which is far from being reassuring even to the trained 
parachutist. 

Accordingly the problem of parachute design was 
attacked from the very beginning once more by one of our 
leading civil engineers, Mr. E. R. Calthrop, M.Inst.C.E. 
He familiarised himself with all the deficiencies of the 
accepted apparatus, and then set to work to evolve one along 
totally different and novel lines. He has completely suc- 
ceeded in his task. To-day there is no reason why an acci- 
dent to an aeroplane or airship in the air, with perhaps the 
solitary exception of explosion which is instantaneously de- 
vastating and destructive, should be attended by the death 
of the pilot or passengers. The new parachute, "the life- 
belt of the air," can be adjusted within a few seconds, and 
the wearer can then leap into space with every confidence of 
being able to reach the ground in safety and without a 
perceptible shock or jar in landing, while descent is free 
from the slightest sensation. The wearer merely floats to 
earth. 

As in all devices which work with unassailable perfection 
and efficiency, the airman's life-belt, or "Guardian 'Angel" 
parachute as it is generically called, is extremely simple both 
in its design, construction, method of operation, and casting 
off. The parachute itself is folded in a special manner within 
a small flat drum-shaped metal container. This vessel is 
made in two pieces, the upper and the lower part, the former 
forming the wind-shield, while the lower 24 inches or so in 
diameter is known as the launching disc. The parachute 

268 



The Life-Belt of the Air 

itself is made of silk and so is light, extremely strong, and 
durable. It is packed within this container in such a 
manner that the slightest tug at the launching disc releases 
the whole, causing the parachute body to open out and 
to become distended, then to fall clear of the upper 
disc. 

Extending from the bottom disc of the parachute is what 
is called the harness, terminating in what may be described 
as the life-belt proper. This comprises a simple and strong 
harness with holes through which the arms are thrust, and a 
waist-belt. The whole of the body can be supported within 
this simple apparatus, which in its general design is some- 
what reminiscent of the chains of a gibbet, and it is so made 
as to enable it to be donned even if the pilot or passenger 
be placed in a somewhat awkward position, without effort 
within a few seconds, or it may be worn during the flight 
without inconvenience. This device is so designed and con- 
structed as to relieve the wearer of all shock arising from the 
distention of the parachute and the consequent sudden arrest 
of fall due to the upward pressure of the air bearing upon 
the under side of the silk body, which becomes inflated as 
it were, and so imparts buoyancy to the whole. At the 
same time the wearer is prevented from giving a demonstra- 
tion of the principles of the roasting-jack during descent, 
because he cannot possibly spin while coming down. 

This parachute consequently represents a striking advance 
upon what has been used for so many decades by intrepid 
balloonists. The latter involves the use of coiled cordage, 
and, when the parachutist casts himself adrift in the air with 
this apparatus, there is a prolonged fall in the mass before 
the parachute commences to unfold to fulfil its designed 
function. If entanglement should ensue appreciable time 

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All About Aircraft of To-Day 

will elapse before it opens, the person falling with rapidly 
increasing velocity meanwhile, so that when at last the para- 
chute does open, there is a distinct jolt or transmission of 
shock to the individual. At times the parachute has even 
been known to refuse to open, and the result in such a case 
is obvious — instant death to the daring parachutist. At all 
events, even under the most advantageous conditions, the 
apparatus will fall at least ioo feet before commencing to 
open, while free-falls of 200 to 500 feet or even more are by 
no means uncommon. 

With the "Guardian Angel," however, there is no need 
to be apprehensive as to whether and when the parachute will 
open. Its design is of such a character as to ensure quick and 
positive action, no matter what the relative position of the 
maa and the parachute may be at the moment of leaving the 
flying, machine or what the speed of the latter may be. 
Obliquated tapes are used, issuing conewise from the con- 
tainer under a continuous tension. In this matter the wearer 
receives immediate support from the air. The nesting of the 
body of the device within the container assures the desired 
end being fulfilled without the slightest fear of mishap or 
entanglement, because the silk body emerges with a cylindri- 
cal column of air of the same diameter as the launching disc, 
over the edge of which it emerges, and the compression 
naturally opens the parachute forcibly to its fullest expansion 
practically instantaneously. The free-fall cannot possibly 
exceed the length of the shock-absorber sling, which is 
13 feet 6 inches, because the moment this distance has been 
covered the parachute at once begins to open out, offering 
an effective support, which rapidly increases until the maxi- 
mum degree of buoyancy has been attained by the distended 
silk body. Within 2^ seconds of leaving the flying machine 

270 



The Life-Belt of the Air 

the individual is fully supported in the air, and the descent 
proceeds slowly, the individual finally alighting upon the 
ground at the speed of 15 feet per second, which is quite 
safe and imparting no more shock than would be encountered 
from a jump off a chair. The absence of high-speed diving, 
swinging and swaying completely removes all risk of 
nausea from the experience. As a matter of fact, descent 
in this manner has been described rather as a pleasant 
sensation. 

Another point must not be overlogked. No skill what- 
ever is required in making the descent, as is the case with 
the ordinary parachute. The apparatus is slung in its con- 
tainer from a suitable point, it only being necessary to see 
that it has a clear position. It can be attached to the under- 
side of the aeroplane with the harness led into the machine 
and placed in an out-of-the-way position but within easy 
instant reach in case of emergency, and requires no more time 
to put pn than is involved with a lifebelt. There is this one 
great advantage : it cannot be fitted wrongly or upside down. 
It will also be observed that the parachute can be employed 
to make a descent from a relatively low height — even 200 feet 
— whereas with the old-fashioned apparatus it is absolutely 
essential that a relatively high altitude should be attained 
so as to allow the parachute ample free-fall in case it should 
be slow in opening. 

To ensure absolutely positive working it is only essential 
that the silk body shall be packed within its container in a 
certain manner. When this has been done by a duly skilled 
person the container is sealed, and the seals are broken only 
in the act of jumping out of the machine. The airman or 
passenger is relieved of all further action once the harness 
has been donned and fastened. It is only necessary to jump 

271 



All About Aircraft of To-Day 

clear of the machine without troubling about anything else, 
because all subsequent operations are carried out automati- 
cally. Another distinct feature of the invention is that should 
an accident befall any occupant of the machine necessitating 
skilled attention it is not necessary for the flying machine to 
make a landing. Communicating by the wireless with the 
aerodrome below, the airman can release the injured person 
while passing over the aerodrome confident in the knowledge 
that the injured or unconscious person will reach the ground 
safely and without incurring any further injury even upon 
landing, while the harness admits of easy release. It is also 
an eminently successful apparatus for dropping mail-bags, 
parcels and other objects from the air en route. Newspapers 
have been delivered in this manner, while the discharge of 
mails en route after the manner incidental to the travelling 
post office on our railways will probably be practised when 
the air becomes recognised as a safe medium for the con- 
veyance of mail matter. In this instance it will be possible 
to introduce an automatic release system, similar to that 
which was employed for releasing bombs, and without 
reducing the speed of the flying machine in the slightest. 

The circumstance that the aeroplane can be driven at full 
speed and release a passenger or load meanwhile is another 
outstanding characteristic. This was brought home very 
convincingly in the course of a demonstration. An aeroplane 
was travelling at ioo miles an hour air speed — 130 miles an 
hour over the ground — at a height of less than 400 feet, when 
Major T. Orde Lees, A.F.C., R.A.F., who was aboard, 
made the jump with the parachute. This represented prob- 
ably as severe a test as could be conceived, because the 
airman was naturally caught in the air-wash of the machine, 
which was travelling at the same speed as the aeroplane. 

272 




of 

2 I 



^■s 



The Life-Belt of the Air 

This means that he was being drawn or sucked forward at a 
speed of ioo miles an hour, and, in fact, was dragging the 
parachute. But the latter instantly commenced its de- 
signed duty. It began to open, and as it did so in the air- 
stream naturally acted in the manner of a brake, so that a 
spirited tug-of-war ensued. The situation in the air was 
somewhat curious immediately the airman had drawn clear 
of the aeroplane. He was at a higher level than his para- 
chute. The latter continued its work and became more and 
more extended. As it did so it acted as a drag upon the 
parachutist until at last the forward momentum imparted by 
the machine was completely lost, when the airman, in accord- 
ance with the law of gravity, gradually sank until he was 
under the parachute, which was now opened to its maximum 
diameter of 28 feet, exerting its utmost buoyant effort, and 
thus came slowly to the ground. 

The fall of the parachute is somewhat interesting to 
follow. When first released obviously there is the tendency 
to travel forward at the speed of the moving body of which 
it formed an integral part, because it has become invested 
with the momentum of the machine. The man continues to 
be sucked along, though, of course, owing to the friction of 
the air, at rapidly diminishing speed. This braking action 
is accentuated by the fact that the parachute, being heeled 
over, offers a resistance to the air stream of the fast-moving 
flying, machine. When at last the parachute is fully opened, 
for an instant it remains virtually stationary in the air, allow- 
ing the man to swing down to the vertical position like the 
bob of a plumb-line. Then follows a gradual vertical descent 
to the ground at the rate of 15 feet per second. As may be 
imagined the strain imposed upon the parts of the parachute 
and the sling carrying the falling person is enormous dur- 
s 273 



All About Aircraft of To-Day 

ing the first few seconds, but the individual is relieved of all 
such effects by the action of the shock-absorbing springs. 
The ability to withstand these enormous strains and stresses 
testifies to the beauty of the scientific design and strong 
construction of the apparatus. 

The circumstance that the parachute cannot fail to act 
is its greatest asset. Distension of the body must take place 
from the enclosed cylindrical column of air which forces the 
body of the parachute to assume a flat bun shape through 
the air being compressed in the dome and the body as it 
were. 

This lifebelt of the air is made in various types for 
certain specific applications, though the fundamental 
principle remains the same throughout. The modifications 
have been introduced for the purpose of enhancing the 
safety factor. Thus, in the case of fire upon an airship, it 
is imperative that one should get clear of the burning 
wreckage with the utmost celerity, and so the parachute is 
fitted with what is described as two speeds. The first ensures 
a high but constant speed first-fall to get clear of the vessel 
promptly and to a safe depth, when automatically the speed 
is changed into the established 15 feet per second descent. 
The depth at which the speed-change should be effected is 
carried out automatically, so that the user is quite ignorant 
of the circumstance and is not called upon to contribute 
to the action in any way whatever. Another distinct 
improvement is the incorporation of means to vary the 
descending speed or steepening of the gradient of fall, and 
to guide the parachute to a certain degree in a lateral 
direction, thereby enabling the parachutist to avoid an 
objectionable landing, such as upon trees, buildings or 
water. It may be mentioned that the special releasing device 

274 



The Life-Belt of the Air 

incorporated enables the wearer to divest himself of the 
apparatus instantaneously which is of distinct advantage 
should the descent be made into water. Less than one second 
is required to secure complete detachment from the parachute, 
so that the user is free from all danger of becoming entangled 
in the apparatus after landing. 

The Calthrop parachute represents the greatest con- 
tribution to auxiliary safety equipment for the flying, 
machine yet devised. It is to the passenger through the 
air what the lifebelt is to the traveller on the ocean liner. 
Having conclusively established its positiveness of action 
and efficiency under all and every conceivable circumstances, 
its installation upon an aeroplane should be made as com- 
pulsory as is the provision of lifebelts upon a sea-going 
vessel. It occupies no appreciable space, while its weight 
is negligible, and the fact that it can be used with equal 
facility, irrespective of the position of the aeroplane, even 
if it be upside down, distinctly enhances its value. If this 
fact be realised we need hear no more of deaths from accident 
with the flying machine. Hitherto, public reluctance to 
travel by air has been due in no mean degree to the absence 
of any proved means of regaining terra firma safely in the 
event of misadventure while aloft. Now all the apprehensions 
are completely removed. Knowledge that there is a certain 
means of safe escape from aerial disaster can not fail to exercise 
a wonderfully reassuring effect upon the public, one which 
would receive additional impetus from the compulsory 
equipment of the flying machine with such a device. The 
war has conclusively proved that it is absolutely reliable 
under all and any conditions. It will be recalled that upon 
the occasion of the arrival of R34 at Long Island, the first 
passenger to land was the officer who completed the last 

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All About Aircraft of To-Day 

1,000 feet between the airship and the ground by parachute, 
to supervise the subsequent mooring operations. Similarly, 
in connection with the projected trans-oceanic dirigible, of 
which a description is given in a subsequent chapter, a 
notable part of the auxiliary equipment is a complete 
installation of the Calthrop parachutes to meet the require- 
ments of the passengers and crew. 



2 7 6 



CHAPTER XVI 

The Flying Machine as a Mail Carrier 

/COMMERCE refuses to bow to any limitations imposed by 
^^ the clock. It seeks to annihilate time and distance in the 
conduct of its affairs. The more intensive the system under 
which business can be conducted, the greater the volume 
handled, the more extensive the employment given, and the 
richer becomes the country embracing the beat-the-clock 
methods. As an instrument for quickening and widening 
business the aeroplane stands supreme. It can beat the 
clock, while it shrinks distance to negligible proportions. 

Let us investigate this problem a little closer. A 
contract is being drawn up in London to the order of a 
Paris house. Under contemporary conditions, if it be 
desired to expedite matters, it is incumbent for the principal 
of one firm to reside in the city of the other during the 
operation — to be on the spot. But this is to the detriment 
of all other business of the house from which the principal 
is absent. 

But consider what would happen if reliance were placed 
upon the post, even when working unpler normal conditions. 
The contract is posted in London on Monday afternoon, but 
it is not delivered in Paris until the Tuesday morning. It 
only requires the final signature which is immediately 
appended and the contract returned at once. But it does not 
reach London until the Wednesday morning. Two whole 

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All About Aircraft of To-Day 

days have been occupied in a simple operation, but one which 
is absolutely indispensable. Should a question crop up at 
the last moment, involving further correspondence, further 
delay arises, more especially if it involves dispatch of 
drawings or other documents, because the telephone cannot 
be impressed into service. 

Now the aeroplane is available. The contract can be 
sent off by air on the Monday morning at 10 a.m. It reaches 
Paris at 12.30 p.m., the signature is affixed and the contract 
is returned by way of the air. The London house receives 
the document at 4.30 in the afternoon, and, that self-same 
night, instructions can be issued putting the working 
machinery in motion. The whole affair has been fixed up, 
signed, sealed, and put in hand within eight hours, and the 
principals of both houses, 250 miles apart, have been free 
to continue their ordinary business. Nothing has suffered 
the slightest interruption or delay. There has been a saving 
of at least 36 hours. Should an eleventh-hour difficulty 
crop up it is just as promptly settled by way of the air, and 
in this instance the saving of time becomes more pronounced. 

The carriage of mails undoubtedly represents the most 
attractive field for the aeroplane — the sphere in which it is 
able to accomplish the most useful service, and incidentally 
to earn the biggest revenue. Commerce does not object to 
paying for special facilities, and there is no valid reason 
why a special express letter service should not be introduced, 
not only between the distant towns of these islands, but 
between our great commercial centres and the Continent. 
The charges might be five or six times what they are by 
the alternative means of conveyance, but there would not be 
the slightest objection to paying for this privilege upon the 
part of commerce. In official quarters there is a tendency 

278 



The Flying Machine as a Mail Carrier 

to delay such recognition of the speed potentialities of the 
aeroplane. Doubtless the feeling prevails that the way of 
the air fails to rise to just that degree of safety and certainty 
which has been attained by the railway and steamship. But 
commerce is prepared to run that risk. The air-mail could 
be kept quite distinct from the general mail ; there would be 
no necessity to dispatch such by the air at incredible speed 
since the private letter writer does not object to a few hours 
more or less being occupied in the movement of his 
correspondence. 

What can be accomplished in connection with an aerial 
mail service has been convincingly demonstrated to the 
world by the Government of Chile, which probably was the 
first authority to introduce a regular air-mail service. A 
number of Bristol monoplanes of exceptionally strong con- 
struction, having a speed of 130 miles an hour, although 
driven by an engine developing only no horse-power, were 
presented by the British to the Chilean Government some 
time ago. The Chilean airmen were speedily attracted to 
the qualities of this machine and its remarkable reliability 
and endurance. So much so that one intrepid airman, 
Lieutenant Cortinez, piloted one of these machines across 
the Andes and back, spanning the great Cordillera backbone 
at a height of nearly 20,000 feet, thereby establishing a new 
record in connection with trans-mountain-range flight. 

The Chilean authorities, upon being convinced of the 
serviceability and reliability of the Bristol monoplane as 
demonstrated by the military pilots, promptly acquiesced 
in the suggestion for the establishment of an aerial mail 
service between the two great centres of population, 
Valparaiso and Santiago, to meet the desires of the financial, 
industrial and commercial circles in the two cities, the 

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All About Aircraft of To-Day 

inter-communicating railway service being far from sufficient. 
The direct distance between the two cities is 70 miles, but 
the railway follows a somewhat circuitous route of 115 miles. 
The journey between the two cities occupies three hours, 
this including a stop of about half an hour at Llay-Llay 
junction, while there are only two or three trains each way 
a day. 

By Bristol monoplane the 70 miles between the two 
points is covered in 40 to 45 minutes, and this air-mail 
service is regularly maintained. The weather conditions 
which prevail in this part of the world are certainly 
exceptionally favourable to the maintenance of such a fast 
and efficient service — in fact they might almost be described 
as abnormally so. There is only one spell throughout the 
year — namely, during the months of June, July and August — 
when they may be said to be unfavourable. This is the time 
when the "Norther" prevails, but as this wind appears with 
the utmost regularity at about four o'clock in the afternoon 
it is an easy matter to arrange the service schedule in such 
a way as to eliminate the obstacle it might offer to the mail 
service so that the air-mail is maintained the whole year round. 
We are apt to look upon the Southern American countries as 
disposed to lag behind the rest of the world, and to be indif- 
ferent to the inexorable march of Father Time, but in regard 
to the acknowledgment of the aeroplane, and a British 
machine at that, as a mail carrier, the Government of Chile 
must be conceded as being strikingly enterprising, because in 
this respect it has led the rest of the world. 

There are many attractive openings for an aerial mail 
service between the islands lying off the shores of Great 
Britain where the introduction of a regular postal service is 
urgently necessary to stimulate local development. And 

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The Flying Machine as a Mail Carrier 

what applies to Britain is equally applicable to many other 
parts of the world, where similar conditions obtain, and 
where opportunity to forge ahead and to develop business 
is held up by lack of postal facilities. In every instance an 
aeroplane could fulfil the requirement very efficiently and 
inexpensively. 

The absence of this link of civilisation was experienced 
so much a few years ago among the inhabitants of Great 
Barrier Island lying in the Hauraki Gulf of North Island, 
New Zealand, as to induce an enterprising resident to 
establish a pigeon-post service between the island and the 
town of Auckland on the mainland, 60 miles distant. The 
service was not only keenly appreciated but enthusiastically 
supported, despite the franking charges being 6d. and is. 
per message. The latter, of course, were written on the ex- 
tremely thin and light paper incidental to such operations, 
because the messages had to be attached to the bird's body. 
In this instance a fast machine would cover the intervening 
gap of water within about 30 minutes, and would be able to 
maintain communication on days when bird flight could not 
be safely attempted. 

So far as the British Empire is concerned it is quite 
possible, indeed probable, that the air-mail will first find its 
official recognition with the inauguration of a service between 
Cairo and India. In the course of his presentation of the 
estimates for the air service to the House of Commons in 
1919, Major-General Seely remarked that it is in Egypt, 
Mesopotamia and the Near East where air development has 
its greatest future. That is a territory of vast spaces and 
perfect climate, enabling things to be done by air which are 
quite beyond achievement by any other known means, except 
at prodigious expense. The possibilities of the airway between 

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Egypt and India were very emphatically brought home by 
General Salmond on the occasion of his notable flight in a 
twin-engine Handley-Page from the Egyptian capital to 
Calcutta via Karachi. At the same time he indicated that, 
as a mail route, this was of distinct strategical significance, 
and was one which might well be inaugurated. 

But there are other parts of the Empire which present 
just as promising openings for the aeroplane as a mail 
carrier, such as the back blocks of Australia and the inner 
districts of the Dominion of Canada. Communities have 
become established in the wilderness, far removed from the 
generally accepted highways of communication. At the 
moment the mail service, while maintained, is a project of 
supreme difficulty, particularly in winter. These com- 
munities would welcome a rapid and frequent air service, 
and would willingly submit to the risk of their mail going 
astray occasionally in the knowledge that every effort was 
being made to render their isolated life more tolerable. 
These remote settlements, even to-day, have to submit to 
shortcomings which would never be tolerated for an instant 
in civilised districts. 

Of course, in such territories as those of which I am 
writing, landing would present a certain degree of difficulty, 
while harbouring accommodation would be most primitive. 
But the people, in return for the increased facilities offered, 
would spare no effort among themselves to render the defects 
as negligible as possible. They would readily assist in the 
clearing and levelling of landing grounds and would 
promptly solve the hangar problem to the satisfaction of the 
pilots and themselves. It is the winter which would present 
the gravest obstacle to the aerial mail service, when the 
ground is covered with a thick mantle of snow. The 

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The Flying Machine as a Mail Carrier 

prevailing white pall might mislead the airmen, but it would 
not be an insuperable obstacle to indicate the landing ground 
in a sufficiently distinct manner. Furthermore, under winter 
conditions the waterways would be brought within possible 
use as landing grounds, and would be worthy of con- 
sideration from the level surface they then present. A 
wheeled undercarriage would be impracticable, but there is 
no valid reason why the aeroplane should not be equipped 
with toboggan skids. 

The severe winter conditions would preclude the use of 
an aeroplane made of wood. A machine wrought of metal 
throughout, such as the "All-metal Bristol," would need to 
be employed, and alone would be found capable of with- 
standing the rigour of the climate, as well as the hard wear 
and tear to which it would be subjected. The snowstorm 
would be the gravest danger. Not only would it be as 
impenetrable as a fog off the Grand Banks, blotting out 
land and sky, but it would tend to settle on the planes, in 
which event the superimposed weight which' it represented 
might become an adverse factor, and act as a drag upon the 
engine, even if it did not imperil the safety of the whole. 
These are questions for thorough investigation and should 
not prove beyond solution. The inauguration of such a 
mail-carrying system would be hailed with wild enthusiasm, 
inasmuch as many of these remote and northern villages 
have to wait for weeks for their mails. 

Alaska and the Pacific seaboard north of Prince Rupert 
offer prodigious scope for aeroplane development, although 
in this particular instance its aquatic colleague, the seaplane, 
would probably prove the most suitable aerial vehicle for 
such a service. Scattered along this seaboard, skirting, what 
is colloquially known as the most silent sea in the world, 

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All About Aircraft of To-Day 

where there are no steamship lanes and very little passing 
marine traffic, are innumerable communities engaged in 
fishery, mining, lumbering and other enterprises. But the 
coast is as freely indented as that of Norway, offering 
excellent refuge for seaplane-carriers. In this instance 
mail carrying might readily be combined with some other 
service, such as general patrol, even if the craft did not 
actually become "Planes of all trades," taking the place of 
the few patrol boats employed in the service, and extending 
a hand for a thousand and one purposes, from the conveyance 
of missionaries, officials, traders, business-men, parcels, 
produce, and what not within the limits of their capacity. 
Alaska is a vast country, but it seems to be much bigger 
than it really is, owing to the infrequency of its steamship 
connections and the few slow-moving craft trading in the 
waters washing its shores. With the introduction of large 
speedy seaplanes its size would shrink because the scattered 
communities would be more closely linked together. Instead 
of being days or even weeks apart, they would be within a 
few hours' reach of one another, and the feeling of isolation 
which at present prevails would be very pronouncedly 
dispelled, while by the maintenance of frequent connection 
with the ports farther south — Vancouver, San Francisco, 
Portland, Tacoma, Seattle, Victoria — by ocean-going 
seaplanes or flying boats, the thousand miles of sea would 
not feel like ten thousand leagues of salt water as is the case 
at present. In such territories as these the seaplane, 
ostensibly a mail carrier, but willing to lend a conveying 
hand to anything and everything within its capacity, would 
represent the biggest boon ever bestowed upon hardy 
colonies of indefatigable trade builders. 

The American Government, in its realisation of the postal 
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The Flying Machine as a Mail Carrier 

possibilities of the aeroplane, is developing air-mail routes 
with true American enterprise. At present these services 
are supplementary in character, duplicating as it were the 
other means of communication between the leading cities in 
the busiest corners of the country. Thus we have air-mail 
routes between New York, Philadelphia and Washington ; 
New York and Chicago; and so on. But the maintenance 
of these air-routes is proving invaluable. Operation is 
yielding experience which it would be well-nigh impossible 
to obtain in any other way. Speculation and estimates are 
giving way to certainty and definite charges, and the tendency 
is downwards. Thus, when the first air-mail in the United 
States was inaugurated, the charge per letter was 24 cents — 
one shilling. But the service proved so popular that it was 
found possible to reduce the charge to 16 cents — eightpence 
— and more recently to 6 cents — threepence. 

Germany has established an air-post system between 
Berlin, Leipzig and Weimar; Berlin and Hamburg; Berlin, 
Frankfort, the Rhineland and Westphalia; and Berlin and 
Warnemunde. The last-named route is somewhat important, 
being part of a scheme for accelerated postal communication 
between Germany and the Scandinavian countries. It is 
well known that both Norway and Sweden are developing 
aeroplane services upon a somewhat imposing scale, 
essentially for linking up the various towns and cities to 
facilitate commerce and business, and so it is also anticipated 
that a seaplane link will be introduced between Warnemunde 
and the Swedish coast in connection with through express 
air-mail services between the two countries. In so far as 
Germany is concerned the aerial mail service has been 
introduced as a substitute to the railways, which have fallen 
into a sorry condition as a result of the war. The probability 
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All About Aircraft of To-Day 

is that, upon the restoration of the railways, the aerial post 
will sink into insignificance, being reserved for highly- 
privileged special delivery service. 

Aerial postal developments, however, are not likely to 
develop very markedly until the precise character of inter- 
national commercial flying is established. So many points, 
which have never arisen before in negotiations of this 
character, will have to be decided. Rates will have to be 
settled, and upon this one point alone there is considerable 
divergence of opinion. Possibly a zonal system will be 
introduced with all its concomitant flaws and difficulties, 
unless an international clearing-house is established or the 
respective governments assume the responsibility of the 
aerial service within their borders. For instance, it is 
suggested in one quarter that the charge for aeroplane letters 
between London and Paris should be one shilling per letter 
of one ounce, while another section of the commercial 
community maintains that sixpence would be an equitable 
fee. The question of charge, however, will probably depend 
upon the actual cost of maintaining the service. It is scarcely 
likely that the European Governments, faced as they are 
with heavy National bills due to the war, will be disposed to 
assume additional liabilities in the form of subventions. The 
difficulty could be solved by handing over the international 
aerial mail service to private enterprise, leaving the latter a 
free hand to establish the charge based upon the actual 
expenditure and cost of maintaining the service, and paying 
each Government a royalty according to volume of mail 
handled, as compensation for business diverted from the 
various official systems. Such a policy would stimulate the 
utilisation of those machines most eminently adapted to the 
work, instead of official recognition by favour which other- 

286 



The Flying Machine as a Mail Carrier 

wise would probably obtain, irrespective of efficiency and 
merit. 

If aerial mail service be popularised and encouraged by 
the levy of low charges, on the principle equivalent to mass 
production in manufacture, we should find the tendency 
towards heavy fast mail-carrying aeroplanes develop, and 
this, in turn, would exercise a beneficial influence upon the 
evolution of the small-parcels express carrier which is every 
whit as vital to business as the accelerated letter post, since 
it would allow the swift transmission of samples. For 
instance, assuming the weight of the aerial mail letter at 
one ounce, a Handley-Page four-engine machine would be 
able to carry 170,000 letters, while a "Bristol Pullman" 
would be able to handle 64,000 letters per journey and at a 
speed of 100 miles an hour. But the probability is that 
appreciable time would elapse before sufficient traffic would 
be forthcoming to permit the profitable employment of such 
machines, which undoubtedly are the most efficient aero- 
planes in Europe for such duty to-day. 

The development of the aerial mail, although it is 
admittedly slow and somewhat spasmodic, is bringing joy 
to one class of the community — the philatelist. He is being 
given the opportunity to proceed hunting vigorously in a 
new field. Various countries have already introduced air- 
mail postage stamps, notably the United States of America, 
Canada, Newfoundland, Switzerland, Belgium, Austria, 
Germany, Hungary and Italy. Doubtless many are naught 
but freaks of the designer's art, but sufficient interest and 
enthusiasm have been aroused to create a market in these 
varieties. Up to the present the sum of ,£4,000 probably 
represents the top price yet paid for an air-mail postage 
stamp. This was for a whole sheet of "error " of the 24-cent 

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All About Aircraft of To-Day 

United States air-post stamp — the first to be issued. By 
some means or other the vignette of the biplane, the 
characteristic feature of the stamp, was inverted. Countries 
of Europe impoverished by war might do worse than emulate 
the practice of certain American States — ring the changes 
upon their air-post stamp issues. The sale thereof would 
constitute at least one source of revenue. The air-stamp 
fever would appear to offer immense possibilities in this 
direction. 



238 



CHAPTER XVII 
Aerial Photography— The New Pastime 

WE are all photographers now. The perfection of the 
'you-press-the-button-and-we-will-do-the-rest " system of 
taking sun-pictures has attained such an extensive vogue as to 
render the compact, light-weight, inexpensive pocket-camera 
an inseparable companion upon one's wanderings. Having 
snapped all sorts and conditions of pictures upon land and 
water from the conventional — and often unconventional — 
standpoint, the enthusiastic amateur is sighing for fresh 
worlds to conquer. The ability to travel through the air 
obviously provides him with just the opportunity for which 
he is seeking. It is only natural to anticipate a craze for 
recording pictures of this mundane sphere as the bird sees it, 
aspirations in this direction having been stimulated by the 
magnificent array of pictures presented at the exhibition of 
aerial photographs taken by the Royal Air Force, which, it 
must be conceded, were truly wonderful. 

In these circumstances we may safely expect the passenger 
to regard his pocket-camera as even more than usually 
indispensable when setting out upon the aerial journey. 
Once the sensation of flight has worn off the camera will be 
snapped with more than usual vigour to secure vistas of the 
ever-changing panorama below. It seems so "dead easy," 
but it is to be feared that many miles of films and scores of 
plates are certain to be exposed to no account. The 
t 289 



All About Aircraft of To-Day 

enthusiast will encounter many disappointments and will be 
disposed to wonder why his little friend, so trustworthy on 
the ground beneath, can be so fickle up aloft, even if he 
does not go so far as to invest the work accomplished by 
our fighting bird-men with trickery. 

It is not so ridiculously easy to photograph from a few 
thousand feet up as upon the ground, at least with the 
conventional appliances, as it may seem for many reasons 
which cannot readily be realised. Aerial photography is a 
branch of the craft apart; the conditions are so vastly 
dissimilar. The work is conducted from quite a different 
angle and Is affected by matters pertaining to light, 
atmosphere and other circumstances which are never 
encountered upon terra firma. Finally, lines of perspective 
seem to develop uncanny and inexplicable freakish kinks and 
twists, rivers and roads appearing to run uphill, mountains 
to vanish, depressions to level out, and houses and lofty 
buildings to assume a common vraisemblance. 

To grasp why this should be so it is necessary first to 
realise the viewpoint offered from the aeroplane or airship. 
The camera is really poised in a gigantic basin, because the 
horizon naturally rises as the level of the eye is elevated. If 
one take a pudding basin and stretch two strings at right 
angles across the top in such a way as to cross one another 
at the dead centre of the circle described by the rim of the 
basin, the point of bisection will represent the aeroplane and 
camera in relation to the earth beneath, the walls and bottom 
of the vessel corresponding to the ground. Thus it will be 
seen that one is really called upon to photograph a huge 
concavity. 

So far so good; but the earth is a sphere, and so its 
surface is really falling away in perfect spherical contour, from 

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Aerial Photography — The New Pastime 

the point immediately beneath the camera towards the 
horizon . Accordingly, the position is somewhat paradoxical . 
There is a concavity arising from the elevation of the eye 
and of the horizon in opposition to the natural convex 
curvature of the earth. The latter is really more pronounced 
than it may seem. If the distance from the elevated camera 
to the horizon be 20 miles the actual curvature of the earth 
in that distance is about 21 feet. The conflict of these two 
antagonistic forces Is capable of playing many strange 
pranks, especially when oblique photography is practised, that 
is to say, when the camera is not pointed vertically down- 
wards, but at an angle inclined towards the horizontal, 
giving expression to disconcerting distortion. 

The illusion is decidedly quaint. Looking directly down- 
wards the earth appears to be as flat as the proverbial pan- 
cake, especially if the sun be in the zenith or be not shining 
upon the earth at all, owing to obstruction by clouds. A 
gigantic iron appears to have been passed over the earth's 
surface, rolling out the protuberances or hills and removing 
the dents or valleys. A lofty cathedral spire, so imposing 
from terra firma, when viewed vertically has no more height 
than the ramshackle chicken-run in the backyard close by. 
Towering trees look like scrub. The prevailing flatness is 
particularly striking owing to the absence of shadows. When 
the sun's rays come from a point well down upon the horizon, 
casting long shadows, as one becomes familiar with the 
unusual picture one can commence to unravel the eminences 
and the deep depressions, as well as the buildings. Shadows 
impart a sense of height to the objects upon the earth's 
surface. Under dull diffused lighting conditions a photo- 
graph of rolling country is certain to be disappointing, 
especially when taken with the popular type of camera and 
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All About Aircraft of To-Day 

developed in the conventional manner. A bird's-eye view 
of undulating, well-wooded Kent, or even of the rugged 
mountains of Wales, appears to be as void of character and 
relief as the Hat Sahara or the expansive American plains. 

Then the atmosphere plays its own peculiar pranks. It 
will upset all calculations and carefully preconceived ideas 
very dramatically. Upon an ideal summer day, when the 
air appears To be as clear as crystal, a thin bluish haze will 
appear to be hanging over the earth. The eye observes it 
but suffers no inconvenience since the organ is wonderfully 
constructed and able to accommodate itself to natural con- 
ditions. It is disconcerting to the photographic lens and 
sensitised plate ; may be so pronounced as to render it 
impossible to secure a picture of the panorama unfolded below 
unless adequate corrective measures have been incorporated. 

From this it will be seen that the chances of being able 
to obtain clear-cut, well-defined pictures of a bird's-eye 
character with the popular camera are doubtful. This is not 
to say that pictures are impossible with the usual photo- 
graphic recording companion, because I have seen excellent 
pictures taken with a thirty-seven-and-sixpenny vest-pocket 
camera from a height of 1,000 feet. But they are the 
exceptions which prove the rule, and were taken under 
conditions which very rarely prevail. 

Consequently, if the aerial amateur enthusiast would 
aspire to success in this unusual field, unless he is quite 
content to waste films and plates by resort to hit-or-miss 
tactics, he will equip himself for the task with the special 
facilities which prolonged scientific thought and experience 
have evolved. They are a direct product of the war and serve 
to prove that in one respect war, while to be deplored, is yet 
able to be constructive, because otherwise it is doubtful 

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Aerial Photography — The New Pastime 

whether any incentive to prosecute experiment and special 
investigation in this highly specialised field would have been 
offered. 

The difficulties which have to be overcome to assure 
success in aerial photography are many, apart from those 
which may be said to be of a natural character, such as 
atmosphere. This is particularly the case with the aeroplane. 
The heavier-than-air machine is always "alive"; it is like 
the rowing-boat lolling upon the water. No matter whether 
the sea be as smooth and as still as the sheet of glass the 
rowing-boat will be observed to have a slight movement. 
The aeroplane, no matter how steadily its course may be 
maintained nor how skilful the pilot, is always quivering. 
It may be a movement due to the air or to vibration set up 
by the engines. Then again one must not forget that it is 
travelling at relatively high speed, whether against or down 
wind. The range in independent speed even is very wide. 
It may be only 50 or so miles an hour ; on the other hand, 
it may run up as high as 100 and 120 miles an hour. 

The fulfilment of these two conditions will render obvious 
the necessity to be equipped with a camera designed along 
special lines — lines adapted to operation in the air. And it 
is the evolution of the aerial camera which represents such 
a distinct achievement in British scientific circles, because at 
the moment the British camera is far and away the best 
instrument which has yet been devised for this class of work. 
One firm has made it a special study, which, bearing in mind 
its resources and past experience, spread over many years and 
embracing every conceivable photographic field, is not 
surprising. The firm in question is the Thornton-Pickard 
Manufacturing Company, Limited, of Altrincham, of shutter 
fame, and the details narrated in connection with this 
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All About Aircraft of To-Day 

essential part of the equipment with which I deal refer 
exclusively to their apparatus, with which the wonderful 
photographs standing to the credit of the Royal Air Force 
were made. I emphasise this fact to reassure the aspiring 
enthusiast that there really is no deception, and that the 
pictures in question are the product of direct photography, 
free from all chicanery. 

The general features of the cameras which have estab- 
lished their extremely favourable value in aerial photography 
may be gathered from a reference to the plate opposite 
page 310. Three specific types have been evolved, inasmuch 
as experience has sufficed to prove that as yet no one camera 
can be designed for universal use, that is if the highest 
attainable results are sought. As already mentioned, two 
broad classes of pictures may be taken from aloft. The one 
is the oblique picture, in which the camera is aimed at the 
object at an angle to the horizontal ; the other is the dead 
vertical or "plan" picture, where the longitudinal axis of 
the lens is at right angles to the horizontal plane of the earth. 

Of the two rJroad classes, it is probably the first-named 
which will be most popularly favoured, as it is free from that 
absolute dead flatness characteristic of the plumb-line photo- 
graph. The first-named is particularly adaptable to the 
taking of photographs of objects and points of interest from 
an unusual point, and is the type of picture which will most 
readily appeal to the amateur. The last-named is more 
useful for the preparation of survey and other scientific 
pictures. Of course such pictorial records are sure to be made 
to a lesser degree by the amateur, although with ultimate 
reluctance owing to their generally monotonous character. 

Accordingly, before setting out upon the aerial trip the 
amateur should make up his mind the class of picture he 

294 



Aerial Photography — The New Pastime 

desires to secure. If the oblique picture be his direct and 
general desire, then he should provide himself with the "A" 
type, which may be described as the best adapted for the 
varying fancies of the user. Although essentially Resigned 
for recording oblique pictures it may be utilised for vertical 
photography, and will be successful within certain limits 
when the amateur has become thoroughly conversant with 
the peculiar conditions obtaining in this field. 

This camera can be held in the hand and be operated in 
the usual manner. It is of simple construction and fool- 
proof in its operation. It represents the first type used for 
military purposes, and for its particular class of work, 
especially snap-shotting of objects and points of interest, has 
not been superseded. Fundamentally it follows accepted or 
familiar lines. It is fitted with a specially designed focal- 
plane shutter having an adjustable aperture, while an 
ingenious device is also incorporated to prevent exposure 
being made inadvertently. In other words, the operator must 
perform a definite conscious action to take his picture. With 
this camera a Mackenzie-Wishart slide is used. This camera 
will make wide appeal owing to its relatively light weight 
and inexpensiveness. Complete, it weighs from five to six 
pounds, while, fitted with a suitably designed aerial F/4.5 
lens, its cost is about ^20, thus bringing it within reach 
of the largest class of amateurs. 

One feature incidental to the use of all hand cameras is 
equally applicable to this instrument. It must be held 
rigidly, or preferably should be fixed rigicily to the fuselage 
of the aeroplane. The natural "liveliness" of the machine 
and vibration arising from the running of the engine may 
provoke qualms as to the advisability of attaching the camera 
to the machine to form part and parcel of the whole, but 
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All About Aircraft of To-Day 

experience has demonstrated conclusively that such movement 
does not communicate any visible blur to the resultant picture 
even upon enlargement. On the other hand, if the camera 
be held, the "liveliness" of the machine is likely to be 
accentuated by the innate inadvertent movement of the 
operator, and the sum of the two movements is likely to be 
revealed very disconcertingly in the resultant record. Ac- 
cordingly, the operator is strongly advised, no matter how 
skilled he may be in the manipulation of a hand camera, to 
attach the instrument rigidly to the machine. 

Of course, circumstances may render it impossible to fix 
the camera in this manner. If such be the case and sole 
dependence upon the hand be imposed the operator must be 
extremely careful not to give the slightest pivotal movement 
to the camera at the instant of exposure. If this precaution be 
not observed the whole image will be blurred. It is this 
pivotal movement, so extremely difficult to prevent, which is 
so fatal to aerial photography. On the other hand, com- 
munication of the aeroplane's inherent vibration to the 
camera exercises no ill effects. 

The "C" type aero camera represents what might 
legitimately 5e "described as the application of photography 
to the flying machine in the scientific sense. It is designed 
essentially for taking directly vertical photographs and in 
rapid succession, as may be required for the preparation of 
a continuous or coherent photographic record for the 
elaboration of a detailed survey. It is normally fitted to the 
machine in such a manner as to allow the lens to project 
through the base of the fuselage to ensure direct plumb-line 
direction. It is of the plate-changer or magazine type, 18 
plates, carried in sheaths, being placed in a magazine 
provided at the top of the camera. So far as operation is 

296 




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2 * 



Aerial Photography— The New Pastime 

concerned it would be difficult to conceive anything simpler, 
or a means for taking pictures in more rapid succession, this 
last named factor being mainly dependent upon the skill and 
dexterity of the operator. 

All that is required is to move the knob to and fro. The 
plate, after being exposed, is transferred to another magazine 
exactly like that mounted upon the top of the camera, while, 
during this plate-changing task, the shutter is automatically 
set for the next exposure. When the supply of plates has 
been exhausted the second magazine has naturally become 
fully charged. The full magazine is withdrawn, the empty 
one from the top is placed underneath to act in turn as the 
receiver, while another charged magazine is inserted at the 
top. The latter, upon being emptied, is always transferred 
to the bottom, the practise thus being somewhat similar to 
the progressive movement of the spools in a cinematograph 
camera. This instrument is of robust design to withstand 
the rigors of hard wear and rough usage, while its mechanism 
is extremely simple and fool-proof, it being quite impossible 
to derange it by normal operation. 

In setting up this type of camera care has to be observed 
not to allow the instrument to project too pronouncedly 
through the floor of the fuselage, otherwise the lens con- 
tributing to the resistance offered to the air will exercise an 
appreciable drag upon the machine. One might naturally 
ask why it should not be attached to the side of the fuselage. 
This may be done, and in fact is recommended with the 
"A" type, but there is an objection to this practise in the 
case of the "C" model. The field of view is likely to be 
curtailed by the side of the fuselage, whereas by pointing it 
through the floor a clean sweep of the earth is obtained. The 
camera being a fixture and being set dead, vertical oblique 
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All About Aircraft of To-Day 

pictures can only be taken by banking the machine, a simple 
task for the aviator, but, as will be recognised, entailing 
communication between the two men, the pilot manoeuvring 
the machine to coincide with the photographer's desires. 

Now, there are occasions when it will either be impossible 
or superfluous to send an independent photographer aloft. 
To facilitate the taking of photographs by the pilot the third 
or " E " type of aero camera has been evolved, and it may 
be said to represent the latest and most beautiful expression 
of ingenuity in this privileged realm. The compactness of 
the machine is obvious; it can be stowed within a small case 
when not in use. As in the case of the "C" camera it is 
designed essentially for taking vertical pictures, and to this 
end is mounted so as to point through the floor of the 
fuselage. It is also of the plate-changer or magazine type, 
being entirely automatic in its action. Its outstanding 
feature is alternative distant control. There are two cords, 
which may be of any desired length and which may be led 
by suitable arrangement to the pilot's seat, or should an 
independent photographer be carried they may be led to his 
position. These cords are alternately pulled, both movements 
making the exposure, crfanging the plate and resetting the 
shutter. An alternative release is fitted, this being in the 
form of a length of Bowden wire fitted to a convenient pistol 
mounting. In this instance the operator has merely to press 
the trigger to make the exposure. This instrument, in 
common with its contemporaries, has a fool-proof simple 
mechanism with adequate precautions against accidental 
exposure, while the magazine-changing system follows the 
lines incidental to the "C" type aero camera. Here again, 
being set for vertical photography, the machine must be 
banked to take oblique pictures, but in the one-man machine 

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Aerial Photography— The New Pastime 

this is a simple matter, the control of the aeroplane and of 
the camera being under the sole control of the pilot. 

Experience has established one factor. This is, the 
advisability to fashion aero cameras of metal. This not only 
ensures great strength combined with light weight and more 
robust compact construction, but militates against the 
tendency upon the part of the camera to suffer derangement 
or to become stiff in working under weather conditions. It 
has been learned that the atmospheric changes, which are 
considerable and wide in the air, are decidedly detrimental 
to the use of wood in the construction of these instruments. 
The " E " type is built of metal throughout, and there is 
every reason to believe that all instruments designed for 
aerial duty will be contrived from metal instead of wood in 
the future. 

Of course the two automatic cameras designed for 
vertical work are more costly than the instrument designed 
for hand use. The figure may be said to range to £$o or 
more, this factor being dependent upon the lens. Moreover, 
they are more weighty, as may be expected, the plates them- 
selves, as any amateur will readily recognise, contributing 
to this feature in no slight degree. But when employed for 
scientific work these two factors have little, if any, signifi- 
cance, so long as the results fulfil requirements concerning 
definition and clearness of view, coupled with the ability to 
tolerate pronounced enlargement. 

While aerial photography has specific coincident diffi- 
culties it also possesses many pronounced simplifications, that 
is when compared with work upon the ground. The operator 
is relieved of all necessity to trouble about focussing. The 
lens is always set at its infinite focus, which, however, 
it may be mentioned, is considerable, and which in turn 

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All About Aircraft of To-Day 

necessitates the camera being of unfamiliar long dimensions. 
For instance, to take a clear detailed picture from a height 
of 16,000 to 18,000 feet it is necessary to have a camera 
exceeding three feet in length. As in the case of the familiar 
instruments, finders are fitted, but they are really only 
serviceable as centring devices. It is not practicable to 
supply a finder which will reproduce the exact picture as 
taken by the camera because the area covered by the lens 
at the altitude at -which an aeroplane generally flies is very 
great, notwithstanding the fact that the lens has a relatively 
narrow angle. Consequently, in taking the picture, the 
operator must aim at bringing his main object to bear upon 
the bisection of the spider lines of his finder. 

Sharpness of picture and clarity of definition depend to a 
very vital degree upon the shutter and its adjustment, both 
in regard to width of aperture in the blind and its speed. 
Contrary to popular opinion, perhaps, the exposure is longer 
than what might be expected, bearing in mind the speed 
at which the machine is moving. Upon the ground an 
exposure of one-thousandth of a seccnd is by no means 
uncommon, but then the camera is relatively near the object. 
As the distance between the camera and the object increases 
it is possible to slow down the shutter speed very perceptibly 
and yet secure a picture free from blur. 

In order to obtain the most satisfactory results in aerial 
photography it is preferable not to use too high a shutter speed, 
and to use a slit ranging from 1 to i}4 inch in the blind. 
A focal-plane shutter is imperative, and in view of the fact 
that the Thornton-Pickard Company pioneered this form of 
shutter, and naturally has amassed wide and peculiar 
experience concerning its design and use, it is not surprising, 
that the British aero cameras fitted therewith have yielded 

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Aerial Photography— The New Pastime 

such uniformly excellent results. The between-lens shutter, 
with which the majority of small cameras are fitted, and with 
which the amateur is obviously most familiar, is to be 
discouraged in this work. Its efficiency is so low, while, 
moreover, it is impossible to obtain sufficient speed on any 
between-lens shutter large enough to take an 8- or io-inch 
F/4.5 lens. 

At F/4.5 the exposure ranges from 1/100 to 1/150 second 
according to light conditions. If it be a brilliant day the 
latter exposure will be adequate, the width of the slit in 
the focal shutter blind being 1 inch, but if it be dull the 
blind slit width should be increased to 1% inches, and the 
exposure reduced to i/iooth second. The height at which 
the flight is made exercises a distinct influence upon this 
factor, as well as the condition of the atmosphere. Doubtless, 
under commercial conditions, the height of flight will lie 
between 1,000 and 3,000 feet, but here again natural con- 
ditions play a prominent part. However, whatever shutter 
speed be selected, one vital point should be borne in mind in 
setting the focal-plane shutter : there should be a fair tension 
upon the blind, allowing it to run fast, but free from that 
peculiar jump which is sometimes experienced in a shutter 
of this character when the tension spring is wound to its 
extreme limit. Fortunately the risk of jar and subsequent 
blurring of the image from this cause is pronouncedly re- 
duced in the Thornton-Pickard focal-plane shutter, owing 
to its wide latitude and perfection in design and excellence 
of construction. 

As a special camera is essential for those who would excel 
in this unconventional field of picture-making, so must a dis- 
tinctive type of lens be employed. The most beautifully built 
instrument, of the smoothest working character, simplicity 

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All About Aircraft of To-Day 

of operation and fool-proofness, counts for nought if the lens 
be indifferent. To have suggested before the Great War that 
British lenses could be used for this work would have been 
construed as rank photographic heresy, the Germans being 
held as super-masters in the science of photographic optics. 
The war changed opinions on that matter, although it was 
a somewhat slow, tedious, and more or less painful operation, 
the authorities even having been inoculated with lingering 
traces of this poisonous virus up to as late as the closing days 
of 191 7. The Zeiss-Tessar lens was upheld by the Germans 
as the finest expression of science and manufacture in this 
realm, and was declared to be the model for the whole world. 
The British, in their folly, took the Germans at their own 
valuation, instead of satisfying themselves upon this point. 
Experience in the world of aero-photography has proved this 
to be one of the biggest bluffs foisted upon a meek and un- 
suspecting British public. One need only compare the Ger- 
man aerial photographs with those taken by British fliers to 
be satisfied upon this point ; while, should one be still un- 
convinced, and yet be conversant with the means of testing 
lenses to determine their essential values, one should dive 
into the laboratory and embark upon careful trials. Even the 
most perfunctory tests will suffice to prove that here Britain 
has left the rival revelling in his own conceit and miles 
behind. 

Considering the apathy with which British photographic 
optical effort was regarded five years ago, it is wonderful to 
be able to record such strides as have been made, which again 
suffices to prove that there is nothing to fear when given a 
fair field and no favour. The slur cast upon British prowess 
in regard to lens-making was also inadvertently extended to 
the glass manufacturers, a woeful ignorance prevailing in this 

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Aerial Photography— The New Pastime 

country of the circumstance that England possesses one of 
the leading optical glass-makers in the world — one which 
even the Germans, with all their dubious methods of trading, 
could not supplant. The Chance family of Birmingham, who 
have supplied more glass for the fabrication of the wonderful 
lenses used in lighthouse engineering than any other com- 
petitor in the world, have probably forgotten more about the 
peculiar craft than ever the Germans learned, and what they 
can do when the craft is swung round to photography — well, 
the photographs taken by the Royal Air Force offer sufficient 
testimony. 

Fortunately for the country at large there were several 
firms available to design and manufacture the special lenses 
required for the aviation cameras; namely Taylor, Taylor & 
Hobson, the well-known Leicester makers of the famous 
Cooke lens, which is a by-word to every amateur enthusiast ; 
Dallmeyer, the record of which in regard to lenses is one of 
the best sustained ; Ross, whose product is as well known as 
the Cooke; and Aldis Brothers. All these firms devoted 
their energies to the perfection of special lenses adapted to 
aerial photography, and there was not one which did not 
excel the achievements of Goerz and the other members of the 
German ring, albeit the work was entirely new, and never 
was attacked before the war burst upon us. 

The lens intended for aero-photography differs in many 
respects from its contemporary used with the pocket camera 
and its many variations upon the ground. They are of long, 
focal length, the smallest ranging from 8 to 10 inches. As 
we are all photographers in these days, there is no need for 
me to dilate upon any explanation of focal length. This focal 
length was used when flying was possible at relatively low 
altitudes — one which will conform with civilian flying, and 

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All About Aircraft of To-Day 

for this reason will probably represent the type in most 
extensive demand. 

In the early days, in order to secure all advantages of 
speed, the lens of F/3.5 aperture was favoured; but practise 
proved it to be too big for aerial work, a disadvantage which 
will obtain just as strikingly under peace as under war 
conditions. It was discovered that, all things considered, the 
F/4.5 lens gave the most satisfactory all-round results, and 
this aperture will doubtless become standardised for civilian 
aero-photography. Thus we may put the lens down at 8 to 
10 inches F/4.5. ^ should be racked out to the infinity focus 
and be definitely locked in that position. Stopping down is 
unnecessary, inasmuch as the British lenses give a wonder- 
fully clear and sharply-defined image right up to the edge 
of the plate, and this virtue again facilitates the task, 
because it enables the lens to be used at full aperture, most 
of the official lenses, indeed, being made with a fixed F/4.5 
aperture. 

As flying height is increased, it is necessary to use a lens 
of longer focal length, though the aperture be maintained, 
although upon this last-named point there has been a certain 
revision of opinion. So far as the war was concerned it 
was the strength possessed by the hostile fixed anti-aircraft 
batteries and the accuracy of their fire which compelled us 
to penetrate the highest regions of the air, and in regard to 
their anti-aircraft defences the enemy proved to be uncannily 
progressive. It was for this reason that the photographs 
which were taken of Zeebrugge Harbour had to be taken 
from the extreme altitude of 16,000-18,000 feet, which, how- 
ever, by no means represented the limits of our photographic 
ability, since many magnificent pictures were taken from 
19,000 feet, and, to the lay-mind, knowing nothing of the 

3°4 




3 £ 



•5. °* 



a <u 



Aerial Photography — The New Pastime 

difficulties encountered, might have been taken from 1,000 
feet, so clear and detailed are they. 

Even this did not represent finality in regard to our en- 
deavours, because, but for the cessation of hostilities, advances 
in anti-aircraft artillery would probably have forced our 
flying photographers to such incredible altitudes as 26,000 
or even 30,000 feet — five to six miles — which, in turn, would 
have imposed additional demands upon our optical science 
leaders. As it was, the demand to extend such respect to 
the German gunners stationed at Zeebrugge was responsible 
for the largest and finest aero lens yet designed and made. 
It is the creation of the Aldis Brothers of Birmingham, whose 
achievements in photographic lens production constitute such 
an outstanding feature of contemporary manufacturing effort 
and ingenuity in these islands. The lens in question has a 
focal length of no less than 36 inches, while it is of F/6 
aperture, and measures 9 inches in diameter across the front 
face. 

This is generally regarded as the crowning achievement in 
aero-photographic lens design and production, and is un- 
grudgingly admitted by the authorities to be far superior 
to the best which German makers have yet been able to pro- 
duce. In comparison with this huge lens the popular Aldis 
J^-plate F/4.5 lens is indeed a pigmy. Even its immediate 
predecessor, the 20-inch F/5.6 aero lens was a giant in com- 
parison with its familiar baby consort. Mounted in its flange 
the 36-inch lens weighs 16^ lbs., the weight of the lenses 
alone — the shaped and polished glasses constituting the set — 
being 7 lbs. 

It may be urged that such lenses as these are abnormal ; 
that while they were absolutely indispensable to war, they 
will be useless for commerce. But is this so? Of a truth 
u 305 



All About Aircraft of To-Day 

they will not be required by the amateur — their price alone 
will tend to render them prohibitive to him ; but aerial photo- 
graphy is destined to take many a new turn. One of the 
most promising fields for the aeroplane under civilian con- 
ditions is for the survey of new countries and the conduct 
of explorations of little-known parts of the earth from the air. 
While it will be possible to conduct much of such work from 
relatively low altitudes— 5,000 to 8,000 feet — other areas will 
demand flight to far greater heights than have ever been 
recorded in connection with military operations. Our know- 
ledge of the mighty Himalayas is scanty and dubious. The 
source of the Bramaputra still remains to be discovered. 
What do we know about Mount Everest and its environs? 
Have the Andes been mapped in detail ? 

A little reflection will suffice to indicate that to conquer 
these crests, even by air, the aeroplane will be forced to pro- 
digious heights. It is not so much that Mount Everest tops 
29,000 feet, which will demand the machine climbing to 
30,000 feet at least, as the need to maintain that altitude. 
Unknown air currents and storms may whirl around its 
summit; yawning crevasses and depressions thousands of 
feet in depth may bar its approach by Shanks' Pony on 
either side. The camera must be designed to be able to meet 
the utmost extreme, whether it be met or not. Thus it is 
apparent that the development of aero lenses for aero-photo- 
graphic work is, relatively speaking, only in its infancy. 

Reverting to the amateur who is content to indulge in 
cross-country aerial sprints, his requirements are fully met. 
This is the field capable of extensive development, and which, 
from its quaint fascination, will make the widest appeal. 
It must be conceded that the preparation of sun-pictures from 
an unconventional coign of vantage possesses a peculiar and 

306 



Aerial Photography — The New Pastime 

unfathomable attraction. Moreover it is sufficiently large to 
present one with all the taxes" upon one's ingenuity and re- 
source that one could possibly desire. It is by no means 
such plain sailing, even under the most favourable conditions, 
as it superficially appears. The pranks played by the atmo- 
sphere will provide one with admirable scope for the practical 
application of individual ideas. The camera may be so de- 
signed as to be possible of operation by one who has never 
previously touched such an instrument, and who knows 
nothing about the art. The amateur may be spared all anxiety 
concerning focusing and stopping down. The machine may 
change its plate after exposure and set the shutter automatic- 
ally, while the problem of exposure may be robbed of all its 
disappointments. Aerial photography may even be set down 
as rigidly mechanical. Granting all these factors, the amateur 
will still be confronted with peculiar problems which will 
occasion more than evanescent thought. In the British Isles 
the atmosphere is so thick, even on a fine day, as to render it 
difficult to obtain a photograph which does not prove mad- 
deningly flat in appearance. The blue haze may worry him 
out of his senses. He can, however, cut out the selective 
absorption of the atmosphere by recourse to colour-filters, 
and this possible solution alone will extend as many search- 
ing problems as he can possibly desire. As a matter of fact, 
the utilisation of colour-filters to aero-photography represents 
a relatively new field. Their successful employment imposes 
a heavy demand upon the skill and competence of the photo- 
grapher, and the average enthusiast will be well advised to 
leave them alone until he has become a master of craft. Still, 
they indicate a pretty tangle to unravel where success can 
only be built upon failure, and suffice to prove that aerial 
photography, despite the ingenuity displayed by the camera 

3°7 



All About Aircraft of To-Day 

builders, lens makers, and others, still presents ample scope 
for the exercise of brains upon the part of the would-be master 
of a new and strange branch of the craft. 

Fortunately the terrors of the atmosphere have been 
largely mitigated by the platemaker. He has attacked his 
side of the question just as assiduously, and has evolved 
plates which, while not wholly dispensing with the necessity 
to use screens, yet enable first-class results to be obtained 
without them. The colour-filter need only be used in misty 
weather or when the atmospheric haze is particularly dense. 
It is the haze which is so exasperating, as I have full occas- 
sion to know. In pre-war days, when ballooning was a 
pastime, aerial photography, with the conventional facilities, 
presented many teasing and apparently insoluble puzzles ; but 
as they have been overcome, it is superfluous to capitulate 
them here. The panchromatic plates which have been placed 
upon the market by the Ilford and other companies represent 
a decisive step forward, and have appreciably facilitated 
taking pictures from aloft. 

The problems do not cease with the mere pressing of 
the button. The panchromatic plate introduces something 
new to dark-room work. It must be handled only in the dark, 
which means that development must be conducted with the 
senses, assisted by a clock, along unorthodox lines. The fact 
that these plates are extremely sensitive to colour renders the 
use of the faintest light, no matter how well screened, im- 
possible. Development can only be conducted by time and 
according to the temperature of the solutions and of the dark- 
room itself. So far as the developer itself is concerned, any 
of the standard rapid formulae now in vogue will suffice. 

Even development will present its peculiar attractions. 
The aero-photographic camp is already sharply divided in 

308 



Aerial Photography — The New Pastime 

twain. The one recommends that as great contrast consti- 
tutes the value — and charm — of these aerial pictures, the best 
procedure is to under-develop the image to a very marked 
degree, and then to intensify the negative. The opposite 
camp maintains that strongly contrasted negatives are un- 
desirable, and that a well-covered and graded negative, such 
as is yielded by the panchromatic plate, is preferable from 
every point of view, contrast, if especially desired, being 
obtained during printing. Thus the amateur can take his 
choice. It is possible that the pictures shown at the R.A.F. 
exhibition, in which contrast was very marked, attracted his 
individual attention. If so, he can follow the under-develop- 
ing-intensification theory, and this will afford him excellent 
scope for his ingenuity. This was the case among the official 
photographers who resorted freely to dodges of every con- 
ceivable description to achieve their end, but who jealously 
guard the secret as to how they obtained their striking results. 
All things considered, it will be conceded that aero-photo- 
graphy opens up quite a new field — one in which resource, 
ingenuity, and patience are certain to bring their peculiar 
reward. It is something beyond the mechanical button- 
pressing system, although it is stated that a camera working 
upon this principle, designed for aero work and using films, 
is shortly to appear upon the British market. But the very 
difficulties and uncertainty, as well as opportunity for in- 
dividual effort, will make the deepest appeal to the true 
amateur enthusiast. The hobby need not be unduly expen- 
sive. As I have shown, the indispensable apparatus capable 
of giving the finest attainable results can be secured for about 
£20. Armed with such an instrument the enthusiast need 
entertain no misgivings. The plates used are 5 inches by 
4 inches, because they are a convenient unit for subsequent 

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All About Aircraft of To-Day 

enlargement, although, if preferred, the smaller ^ -plate mav 
be employed with adapters. 

Finally, it must be remembered that operations are not 
confined to the mere photographing of objects upon the 
ground. Up aloft there is magnificent scope offered for the 
lover of cloud effects. Then, if flying in mountainous country 
be possible, unconventional and strikingly picturesque 
glimpses of scintillating snow-crowned peaks, or sullen rain- 
cloud clothed summits may be secured, and with strange, 
albeit charming, lighting effects. Ground photography has 
an indescribable fascination and charm, as every amateur 
knows full well ; but it is nothing compared with that inci- 
dental to the air and to movement in the three dimensions. 
Nevertheless, the greatest attraction of all lies in the know- 
ledge that success depends vitally upon individuality, the 
communication of which to the ultimate picture will make 
irresistible appeal to the discriminating. 



310 




Type E Aero Camera 



Type E Aero Camera 
In Stor age Case With Extra PlateMag azines 



PHOTOGRAPHING FROM THE CLOUDS 

In devising cameras peculiarly adapted to the difficult conditions of aerial photography from 
aeroplanes British ingenuity achieved a striking triumph. In this work -the instruments 
designed and built by the Thornton-Pickard Manufacturing Company, Limited, were supreme- 
Therewith the Royal Air Force took over 6,000,000 photographs during the war from heights 
ranging up to Zh miles. 



CHAPTER XVIII 
Exploring and Surveying by Air 

IT would be interesting to know how many of those who, 
upOn reading in the 'sixties, or even the 'nineties, of the 
past century the fruits of the vivid imagination of Jules Verne, 
as expressed in his "Five Weeks in a Balloon," did not assume 
the quaint wisdom of the owl, shake their heads knowingly, 
and, while congratulating the author upon his brilliant powers 
of romance, dismiss his phantasy as an utter impossibility. 
At the time the gifted author penned his anticipation he had 
little solid ground to guide him. Dynamic flight still seemed 
to be as elusive as the discovery of the Philosopher's Stone, 
while even the dirigible balloon remained more or less an 
unfilled ambition. Certainly the attempts which had been 
made up to that time were far from being sufficiently en- 
couraging to justify the writer's manifestation of imaginative 
romanticism. It is not surprising that he was dismissed as a 
mere dreamer in so far as aerial travel was concerned, because 
then the ability to remain five days in a balloon, let alone as 
many weeks, appeared to be about as possible of realisation as 
the conquest of the Poles. 

Yet, no sooner had the pioneers achieved their first aerial 
flights both by aeroplane and airship, than other writers 
emulated Jules Verne. They soared to greater heights of 
imagination than had ever been attempted by the popular 
romantic author, although it must be conceded that they had 

3ii 



All About Aircraft of To-Day 

more tangible records of achievement to assist them. 
Curiously enough they virtually took up the threads where 
Jules Verne had dropped them, and were quick to emphasise 
the value which the new method of travel and the medium 
traversed would extend in the rolling back of the curtain of 
mystery from those parts of the world which were still marked 
upon the map as "unknown." 

At the present moment the enthusiasm manifested in this 
direction is even more exuberant, and it must be admitted that 
in the aeroplane and airship — particularly the last-named — we 
have a powerful force for exploring unknown or little-known 
territories. When, one ventures upon the subject of explora- 
tion popular thoughts immediately fly towards the unravelling 
of the secrets surrounding the two Poles, albeit both have 
been reached by man. Polar exploration, however, repre- 
sents merely one phase of the big issue. It is in a class by 
itself demanding special arrangements and deliberate, pro- 
longed forethought as much when the two ends of the earth 
are sought through the air as upon foot over the hurricane- 
swept and scarred icefields. 

For this reason Polar exploration by air will remain for 
some time a scientific phase of activity. The penetration of 
the enormous icefields offers but little attraction to commerce 
except in so far as mere sight-seeing is concerned. The work 
which can be conducted within those forbidding areas is 
essentially of a scientific character, although it may yield in- 
formation of far-reaching auxiliary importance to commerce. 
The immediate application of flight to exploration is con- 
cerned with the opening up of stretches of the world lying 
within the zones which are capable of enabling the human 
race to endure. And there are immense stretches of the 
Americas, Siberia, China, Northern India, Australasia, and 

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Exploring and Surveying by Air 

Africa awaiting investigation — sufficient to absorb all avail- 
able scientific endeavour for many years to come. 

As far back as 19 14 one of our barons of commerce, Lord 
Leverhulme, conceived the possibility of penetrating little- 
known territories in a preliminary manner via the air. He 
was anxious to gather further information concerning the 
economic value of a certain corner of Africa, especially in the 
contribution of oil of a vegetable character capable of being 
impressed into the manufacture of soap and margarine. The 
country in question was well-watered, but practically nothing 
was known about the upper reaches of these obvious channels 
of communication, and still less about the hinterland fringing 
them on either side. It was quite possible that the dense 
vegetation crowding upon the coastline became attenuated as 
the country was penetrated, giving way to final scrub and 
bush of the nature incidental to Uganda. On the other hand, 
it was equally feasible that the vegetation continued to 
be of that peculiar oil-nut-yielding distinctiveness asso- 
ciated with the coast. Close scrutiny alone could decide this 
point. 

To have dispatched an economic exploration expedition to 
verify or disprove calculations and estimates would have been 
an expensive, tedious, and dangerous enterprise. Practically as 
nothing was known about the land except facts of a fragmen- 
tary nature brought by venturesome spirits who had traversed 
the difficult belt. This was not sufficiently illuminating to 
satisfy commerce. But the conventional type of expedition 
would have suffered from a further disability. Such under- 
takings, no matter how well-equipped and supported, must 
keep to the beaten tracks, because the jungle is so dense and 
tangled. This characteristic prevents the explorer from scan- 
ning the country on either side of the meandering narrow 

3i3 



All About Aircraft of To-Day 

highway for more than a few feet. A native track may be 
trodden down for one of two reasons — perhaps both. The 
one is that it represented the line of least resistance between 
two points, or that it may have been the shortest connecting- 
link. The probability is that the former consideration deter- 
mined the native route, as I have learned from experience in 
connection with Indian trails. Whatever the reason guiding 
the treading down of the track by passing feet it is of little 
or no practical value in determining the commercial value or 
possibilities of the adjacent country. 

When one essays to fulfil such work by air quite a different 
aspect is imparted to the whole enterprise. For such work the 
airship is pre-eminently adapted, inasmuch as the pilot has 
full control over speed as well as altitude, while if desired he 
can even hover over a certain spot as long as may be required. 
Descent and ascent are facilitated, because both movements 
can be carried out in the vertical plane. At evening the 
vessel can descend to be anchored for the night in a clearing. 
As a rule such clearings are comparatively small and covered 
with grass or even scrub growing in profusion. When 
brought to earth it is a relatively simple matter to anchor the 
craft nose to wind, while should emergency demand a rapid 
ascent it may be readily accomplished. 

On the other hand, the aeroplane, in its present form, is 
quite unsuited to the work. From aloft a small clearing may 
seem to be very tempting. But to come down in ignorance 
would be fatal. The clearing may be little more than a bog 
sufficiently stable to support the human body, but totally 
incapable of receiving a weighty aeroplane, while, of course, 
the grass and other growth would constitute an impossible 
obstacle to ascent. 

Recognition of these disabilities has been responsible for 
3i4 



Exploring and Surveying by Air 

the elaboration of another idea to facilitate the utilisation of 
the aeroplane in such work. It is suggested that the machine 
should be provided with floats after the manner of the sea- 
plane, as well as wheels to facilitate descent upon and ascent 
from the water. It is urged that the machine should settle 
upon the water and work its way towards the bank, or be 
warped thereto to be anchored for the night. In this event 
the craft would need to carry a collapsible light canvas canoe 
to facilitate communication between the descended aeroplane 
and the bank. A towing-rope would be passed to the latter 
snubbed round a tree, and the crew, gaining the shore, would 
then haul the machine into the lee of the bank. 

To those who are unfamiliar with these strange rivers such 
a proceeding sounds attractively simple and straightforward. 
As a rule, however, these rivers, particularly in their upper 
reaches, are extremely treacherous. He would be an intrepid 
aviator who would venture to come down to settle upon some 
of the big waterways, say, of Canada, such as the Peace, 
Fraser, Athabasca, Skeena and other rivers in the unknown 
north-west. From a distance they appear to be quiet, well- 
ordered waterways, their extreme width contributing to the 
prevailing appearance of perfect serenity. But the moment 
the machine struck the water a heavy tax upon navigating 
prowess would be imposed. Naturally the aviator would make 
for the centre of the river to secure the advantage of elbow 
room. This very temptation would lead to his undoing, 
because in the centre the river is a fiercely-scurrying mad- 
dened surge of water. It swings along at a vicious pace, and 
is more to be dreaded in summer, when weather conditions 
are ideal for flying, than at any other time of the year. Some 
of these rivers are little more than torrents, though super- 
ficially there is nothing to betray their mad haste to get to 

3i5 



All About Aircraft of To-Day 

the sea. The Skeena river in North British Columbia may be 
cited as a typical instance. During 180 miles of its run it 
falls about 700 feet. The steamboats have a hard task to pick 
up a landing stage en route. They fly past the stopping 
point, slow down, turn round, and then chug laboriously up 
stream. At one minute they are travelling twelve to fourteen 
miles an hour easily, because the stream is with them. The 
next minute they are going all out to crawl forward at two 
miles an hour. " You can come down from the Skeena in two 
days, but it may take you a fortnight to get up " is the collo- 
quialism of the navigators who know every inch of this water- 
way ; and it is more or less applicable to every other waterway 
not only in Canada but other countries. 

In such circumstances one can readily imagine the plight 
of even a skilled pilot in attempting to make a descent upon 
the water. Landing with the stream, the pace of the current 
which it is impossible to determine except by the "feel," since 
it varies from hour to hour, the aeroplane, deprived of its 
independent speed as supplied by its motors, becomes the 
sport of turbulent waters to be hurled forward. In all prob- 
ability it would founder within a few moments. Certainly 
herculean effort, uncanny skill, and a liberal dash of luck 
would be required to regain its control. 

Supposing the pilot were suspicious and decided to land 
against the stream. He would need to keep his machine 
under the most extremely delicate control, and would have to 
hit the water in the manner of the flat stone thrown by the 
boy in his game, of ducks and drakes. The moment of 
impact would serve to convey to him whether his engine was 
running at sufficient speed to off-set the strength of the cur- 
rent, and the hand would need to be highly sensitive to 
resolve this point to a nicety. Pre-supposing it was deter- 

316 



Exploring and Surveying by Air 

mined, then the engine speed would have to be carefully 
maintained while definitely settling, and then be kept going 
until the shore was made with the rope, when delicate 
manoeuvring would have to be displayed to work the craft 
gradually inshore to gain the shelter of the bank. Unre- 
mitting care would need to be observed to prevent the machine 
swinging sideways. If it did so disaster swift and sudden 
would overtake it. The moment the floats turned a trifle 
broadside they would be whipped round by the current, and 
the water would pile up the side, thus forcing the machine 
over. 

Getting off would be far more exciting and dangerous. 
The machine would need to taxi up stream, the engine power 
developed being adequate to take into consideration, and to 
allow for, the swing of the water. Indiscriminate taxi-ing up 
these waterways is impossible. The main channel is gene- 
rally littered with hidden dangers in a variety of forms — 
snags, boulders, sand-bars and what not, with reaches of 
rapids thrown in to add to the difficulties and complexities of 
navigation. The chances are that if a pilot ever did succeed 
in getting down safely he would be unable to rise. Moreover, 
he has not only the treachery of the water beneath him to bear 
in mind, but the fickle wind currents as well. These whistle 
through the rift formed by the waterway as through a funnel. 
Sometimes they are in opposition to the water ; at others they 
are in alliance; at times they swing viciously at an angle 
across the stream ; while they chop and change with the most 
amazing capriciousness. In so far as penetration of these 
difficult territories is concerned, landing would have to be 
made upon a lake, either an isolated sheet of water or the 
winding of a river, care being exercised in the last-named 
event to select a site clear of the main channel. This would 

3i7 



All About Aircraft of To-Day 

be particularly essential among the mountain ranges, for in 
these regions the water is generally compelled to drive its way 
through a constricted passage, and in times of flood will even 
sprawl over the adjacent low-lying ground. Then, with 
characteristic fickleness, it splits up into half a dozen fairways 
of identical viciousness. 

Fortunately all these backwood waterways are not so 
treacherous. Some are quiet, ordered, and slow-moving, but 
they are the exceptions which prove the rule. Generally 
speaking it would be advisable for the pilot to consider these 
up-country rivers, even when flowing in an apparently slug- 
gish manner through level country, with suspicion ; they are 
always more dangerous than they appear. The assistance of 
local guides, who may be trusted to know these waterways, 
should always be sought, and, as a rule, the resource of the 
man upon the spot, conversant as he is with prevailing con- 
ditions, will be found a reliable reed upon which to depend, 
although his ways of achieving a desired end may not always 
meet with approbation. 

The exploration of the lesser known parts of Canada by 
aeroplane, notably the inner parts of Ungava, and the more 
northern reaches of the Yukon Territory, has been suggested, 
but is regarded with mixed feelings by those competent to 
express an opinion. Before attempting the work it would be 
necessary to prepare a detailed map showing the situation of 
the scattered posts of the various trading companies. The 
fact that these trading posts are established may serve to 
prompt objections against carrying out any exploration flights 
at all, but it must be explained that these posts are chained 
up by communicating tracks, and that very little is known 
beyond a few miles around each post. Native villages would 
also need to be indicated, either beforehand, or in the course 

3i8 



Exploring and Surveying by Air 

of preliminary investigations by air, and committed to the 
map. 

The reason for such precautions may be explained. As 
a rule, ample clearings have been made around each post 
and village, the timber having been felled to provide firewood 
for the isolated factor or community. These clearings for the 
most part are tolerably level, while in many instances there is 
a relatively straight and wide wagon road approach to the 
post. This narrow track would have to be used, as a rule, for 
landing and rising, because the adjacent country, while clear 
and level, may prove a snare owing to the stumps of trees 
remaining in the ground. Collision with the butt of a Douglas 
fir, or even cottonwood tree, having a diameter of three feet or 
more, would not fail to leave its mark upon the aeroplane. 
Nevertheless, a little preliminary work would generally serve 
to convert the clearing into a passable aerodrome. 

Such a trading post or village could be selected as the base 
for operations, a circle being drawn round each, at first of 
relatively short radius, but extended as the general local con- 
ditions became mastered. From varying altitudes the general 
lay-out of the country for miles around could be determined, 
due record being made of the openings in the interminable 
expanse of timber. These "little prairies," as they are termed, 
would need to be regarded with caution and to be inspected, 
for many are but muskeg, landing upon which two or three 
hundred miles from the base would certainly imperil the 
aviators. The unlucky crash which the Vickers-Vimy machine 
experienced upon landing in Galway after crossing the 
Atfantic suffices to emphasise how misleading a bog appears 
when regarded from aloft. 

Density of timber is likely to render exploration of new or 
little known territories lying within the temperate zone a 

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All About Aircraft of To-Day 

matter of extreme hazard if the aeroplane be employed. Of 
course, when the dynamic flying machine becomes invested 
with the capacity to ascend and descend vertically, as welf as 
being possessed of the power to hover, these dangers will 
disappear. But until such time the investigation of such 
areas lies rather within the province of the airship, and it is 
this vessel which will be most extensively employed for this 
work. 

Exploration to be of any material value to science and 
commerce must be carried out with care and precision. For 
the fulfilment of such work speed is a secondary factor, if it 
be not actually a handicap. Up to approximately seventy 
miles an hour the airship is overwhelmingly superior to the 
aeroplane, while, of course, there is extreme latitude for the 
lighter-than-air machine between the zero and maximum. 
The speed of the aeroplane cannot be safely reduced below a 
certain pre-determined limit, which, for the most part, is far 
in excess of the requirements of the work which is to be 
achieved. Radius of action upon a single fuel charge is far 
more vital than mere speed, and at slow cruising speed, say 
at twenty miles an hour, or even less, the airship would be 
able to remain out upon a specific duty for several days and 
would be able to satisfy the creature comforts of the party 
in regard to commissariat and sleeping as well as camping 
facilities meantime. The airship, by being lowered to the 
ground and safely anchored, may even be used as a mobile 
camp. Accurately moored in a clearing the average storm 
might be viewed without anxiety inasmuch as the surround- 
ing forest would serve as an excellent wind-screen. 

In so far as Polar exploration is concerned, the aeroplane 
would probably prove the more advantageous, at least for 
the purposes of completing what might be described as the 

320 




A PICTURE TAKEN DIRECTLY VERTICAL, GIVING PLAN EFFECT 




Official R.A.F. Photographs. 
A PICTURE TAKEN OBLIQUELY 
PHOTOGRAPHY FROM THE AIR WITH THE THORNTON- 
PICKARD AERIAL CAMERA 



Exploring and Surveying by Air 

preliminary runs, or for generally spying out the country, the 
airship being subsequently utilised for completing the more 
detailed investigations. The difficulties are more intense in 
this field of application. One has only to read the absorbing 
and thrilling stories of the experiences of explorers within 
the Polar regions during the past twenty years to be able to 
form some idea of the problems which would need to be 
solved and the dangers to be surmounted. Low temperatures, 
such as are to be expected, are really but the least of the 
perils. It is not impossible to subjugate these, though the 
task would be simpler with the airship than with the aero- 
plane. The power plant, as represented by the engine, 
radiators and all auxiliary gear, as well as the fuel and lubri- 
cating oil tanks, would have to be enclosed in a special 
housing, as well as being covered for protection against the 
attacks of King Frost. The apartments or engine-rooms 
would also need to be maintained at an even temperature to 
ensure the smooth even running of the motors and water 
circulation, as well as steady fuel and oil feeds. It would 
probably be found expedient to resort to electric heating, 
necessitating the installation of a small electric generating 
plant, together with accumulators, science not having yet 
solved the problem of storing heat after the manner of elec- 
tricity, although, if such an achievement ever be placed on 
record, it will go a very long way towards solving the problem 
of easy, quick and safe exploration of the Polar regions by 
air. 

The perfection of means for heating clothing by the aid 
of electricity has also solved the task of equipping the 
members of the party with garments which would enable them 
to pursue their respective tasks in comfort. When one bears 
in mind the circumstance that the temperature is so low as 
v 321 



All About Aircraft of To-Day 

to cause the skin of the hand to adhere to exposed metal with 
which it may chance to come into contact, and to provoke 
a sensation analogous to that produced when seared by a hot 
iron, one may possibly gather some idea of the advantage 
accruing from the provision of electrically-heated clothing, 
especially of gloves and moccasins. Under airship con- 
ditions, the supply of the requisite current for this purpose, 
as well as the heating of rugs and carpets within the cabins, 
will be appreciated. 

The blizzard and the boisterous winds encountered in the 
Polar regions constitute the greatest dangers. The aeroplane, 
from the circumstance that it offers a smaller area of resistance 
to the wind and presents a smaller refuge for snow, would be 
at a distinct advantage as compared with its lighter-than-air 
contemporary, although the deposit of a thick layer of snow 
on the planes and the dependence of icicles from the spars, 
wires, and fuselage would constitute a serious encumbrance, 
as well as increasing resistance to the air. If one bears in 
mind the enormous bulk of the airship, one will readily see 
that in this instance the weight of snow accumulating upon 
the body of the bag might easily become sufficient to 
destroy all lifting effort, and so bear the ship to the ground. 
Again, the enormous area which it would present to the fierce 
Polar storms would represent a distinct handicap if not actual 
danger. 

Yet it is imperative that Polar exploration by flying 
machine should be carried out if at all within the achieve- 
ments of man. In this way, and this way only, will it become 
possible to widen our knowledge concerning the upper reaches 
of the atmosphere as it prevails above the ends of the earth. 
It would enable us to remove much speculation prevailing at 
present concerning terrestrial magnetism and electricity, as 

322 



Exploring and Surveying by Air 

well as providing the means for the investigation of the 
phenomena of the Aurora Borealis and the Aurora Antarctica 
from quite a new and novel point of vantage. 

Even from the pleasure point of view, new opportunities 
for sensation, thrill and wonder are opened up. When the 
air conquest of the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans becomes as 
commonplace as their negotiation by liner, we may look for- 
ward to aerial trips to the North Pole. To-day it may sound 
fantastic to suggest such a journey, but it is well within the 
range of possibility while the human race is by inclination 
ambitious. Exploration and surveying expeditions conducted 
in safety will immediately suggest the inauguration of joy- 
riding trips, so that the day of Cook's Tours to the North 
Pole may really not be so ridiculously remote as it appears. 
Seeing that the lure of the midnight sun tempts thousands to 
make runs so far north as Spitzbergen, while even trips to 
the fringe of the forbidding north Polar ice sea are conducted 
under favourable conditions during the summer season, it is 
safe to assert that the practicability of being able to reach the 
top of the earth and to witness the gorgeous display of terres- 
trial electric pyrotechnics will prove equally irresistible. It 
will not be a dangerous or tedious journey. Suitable sites 
for aerodromes exist at Spitzbergen and Nova Zembla, while 
aeroplanes might be employed for service as feeders between 
the mainland and these remote airship termini. The round 
trip to the North Pole would occupy no more time than the 
run from Newfoundland to Ireland. It might be completed 
in twenty hours under favourable conditions and without 
unduly pushing the vessel. The trips could be so timed 
as to bring the wonder-seeking and curiosity-provoked pas- 
sengers to the Pole at the hour when the most magnificent 
natural spectacles might be anticipated. It may safely be 

323 



All About Aircraft of To-Day 

stated that such trips would become one of the most sensa- 
tional and thrilling which this rapidly shrinking, sphere would 
be able to offer. 

So far as the South Pole is concerned, it is likely to remain 
an unconquered tourist field for many years after the routes 
to the North Pole become established. The remoteness of 
the bottom of the earth, the great span of the Antarctic Ocean 
dividing it from the belt of accepted civilisation, and the 
relatively sparsely settled character of the countries under 
the Southern Cross will somewhat react against the rapid 
development of a comparative idea in regard to the South 
Pole. The conditions are not so favourable for the establish- 
ment of aerodromes as at the top of the world, although in 
so far as this issue is concerned it is quite possible that aerial 
investigation of the territories bordering the Antarctic Circle, 
notably the Southern Shetland Islands and MacQuarie Island, 
may prove of far-reaching assistance in this connection. The 
Northern Hemisphere is more densely populated ; of its own 
initiative it is seeking more and more elbow room in 
a northerly direction, and the outposts of civilisation have 
been pushed well beyond that indefinable scientific line of 
demarcation which we popularly call the Arctic Circle, so that 
conditions are more favourable to the aerial conquest of the 
top of the earth and its ice-cap. 

Commerce and trading follow hard on the heels of the 
explorer, who has but to dwell briefly upon the economic 
resources of the country which he has penetrated to fire the 
imagination and enthusiasm of those who would turn the 
trading possibilities of Nova Terra to account. The path- 
finders set out to discover lines for railways, tracks for tele- 
graph wires, sites for towns and mills. This is work which 
from its very nature must be conducted with care and ac- 

3 2 4 



Exploring and Surveying [by Air 

curacy, since the efforts of the trail-blazers constitute the 
foundation for the subsequent commercial and industrial 
fabric. The work accomplished by the explorer, often of a 
perfunctory character, has to be verified and amplified. 
Accordingly, surveys must be conducted along well ordered 
and elaborate lines. It is a task every whit as exciting as that 
of the exploration, because it necessitates venturing into new 
territory with its untold dangers, thrilling incident, and pre- 
paredness to cope with the unexpected. 

It is expensive and tedious withal. Take the building of 
a railway or the plotting of the path for the telegraph through 
a new territory as a case in point. The maps are necessarily 
scanty and but indifferently prepared — possibly they carry 
only the hazy details outlined by the explorer. When the 
surveyor sets forth on his mission he comes full tilt against 
error. He finds that rivers are indicated miles out of their 
true course, and that mountains have been recorded where 
they do not exist. Consequently he takes little for granted. 
Difficulty of movement, whether it be through thickly wooded 
country or over sweltering plain and desert, demands that his 
equipment shall be reduced to the absolute minimum, while 
elaborate precautions have to be observed to ensure supplies 
of food being within his reach at all times. 

Some idea of the arduous labour confronting the railway 
surveyor under contemporary conditions in plotting out a 
path for a new railway may be gathered from the fact that 
the selection of the route of the Grand Trunk Pacific Railway 
through the Rocky Mountains of Canada involved tramping 
afoot over 10,000 square miles of scarcely known country. 
The flying survey, as the first investigation is called, when 
the surveyor strikes his route by aid of his compass and 
roughly paces his distances, was carried out by one man 
325 



All About Aircraft of To-Day 

accompanied by an intrepid Indian scout. Each carried his 
bed in the form of a blanket upon his back, while the twain 
depended in the main upon the game which fell to their rifles 
and to their carefully-prepared traps in the rivers, for their 
existence. They wormed along narrow crevices scarcely wide 
enough to receive their two feet, often precariously poised 
hundreds of feet above a raging mountain torrent. They 
either swam the rivers or crossed them upon frail rafts hastily 
fashioned from logs crudely lashed together with willow 
thongs. For months at a time nothing was heard of them ; 
facilities for communication except through the medium of a 
passing Indian hunter or wandering trapper were impossible. 

Contrast this method of running the flying survey with 
that which is now opened up via the air. The most difficult, 
thickly forested country, laced with the most tumultuous 
rivers, the most sun-scorched desert, can now be examined in 
comparative comfort and in safety from an excellent coign of 
vantage. By means of the aeroplane, using the most ad- 
vanced trading post as its base, hundreds of square miles 
of country can be examined within the space of a week. If 
the airship be employed the speed can be slowed down to 
walking pace, and as often as required it can be brought to a 
standstill, the propellers running at just sufficient speed to 
off-set the wind, poised but a few score feet above the ground. 
The whole of the country can be photographed, and from the 
built up panorama a complete bird's-eye view of the topo- 
graphy of the ground, true to scale, may be examined at 
leisure. 

In so far as the application of photography to surveying 
is concerned, there is one peculiarity which will demand 
careful consideration. Direct vertical pictures, as explained 
in another chapter, yield merely flat pictures in the horizontal 

326 



Exploring and Surveying by Air 

plane. Variations in the contour of the land are not shown, 
or if so, only imperfectly. It is difficult to assess relative 
heights and depths. A more realistic picture is obtained by 
taking an oblique photograph, but this presents another 
problem. Distortion becomes somewhat pronounced, and is 
capable of playing many strange and bewildering tricks. A 
natural object, such as a hill or a wood, may be photographed 
from twenty or more different points and give as many 
different pictures, no one for a moment, unless otherwise in- 
structed, being able to associate the many pictures with the 
one object. This peculiar distorting property is one which at 
the moment is occupying close scientific attention. It is gene- 
rally recognised, that, until it is overcome, or at least miti- 
gated very perceptibly, photography will only be able to 
play a minor part in survey work from the air ; at all events, 
in the oblique sense. 

In difficult country aerial communication would be useful 
for the movement of instructions and provisions between the 
base and the advanced survey camps. The parties, as a rule, 
are limited in number, some being composed of only six to 
eight men. The general practice is to utilise pack animals for 
the transport of foodstuffs and other impedimenta, but such 
movement over narrow wearisome trails is slow. With aerial 
communication the movement of the camps would be expe- 
dited and the whole task appreciably speeded up. The dis- 
tance to be traversed for the most part is relatively insignifi- 
cant, ranging up to about 120 miles from the base to the most 
advanced camp. The establishment of quicker transport and 
communication facilities would enable a greater volume of 
work to be accomplished in a given time, a matter of supreme 
importance in territories where the open season is relatively 
brief. 

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All About Aircraft of To-Day 

The association of the aeroplane and airship with survey 
operations would not be confined to the plotting of railways. 
It would be equally useful for the driving of trails and wagon 
roads, telegraph lines, the conduct of geological, economic 
and mining surveys, as well as the delimitation of frontiers. 
In work of this character appreciable delay is often incurred 
in the transmission of information and instruction, for the 
reason that the only available Mercury is the packer or native 
guide and his four-footed mount, or canoe should water con- 
nection be available. In many instances all messages are 
•conducted on foot, which, strange though it may seem, is 
often the quickest. But inasmuch as a week is likely to be 
occupied in traversing, say, 120 miles, the distance between 
the advanced camp and the base, it will be seen that progress 
is exposed to serious delay upon those occasions when the 
man in the field is anxious to receive further instructions from 
his chief at the base. From fourteen to twenty-one days at 
least will be required to complete the round trip, whereas, via 
the air it could be carried out satisfactorily in a few hours. 
Obviously, therefore, a great future awaits the development 
of the aeroplane and its consort in this important field of 
human endeavour. 



328 



CHAPTER XIX 

Dirigible Airships for Trans-Oceanic Traffic 

\^L7"HEN will the airship service between Britain and 
™ America be established ? This is the question which 
naturally arises in view of the momentous trans-Atlantic 
voyage of H.M.A. .R34. It was an epoch-marking journey in 
every sense of the word, especially the homeward run from 
New York to Pulham, Norfolk, since this was made more or 
less under normal conditions, along what may be described as 
the great trans-oceanic aerial lane, the 3,000 odd miles being 
covered in 3 days 3 hours 3 minutes. The climatic conditions 
were such as might safely be anticipated, if not every day, at 
least at intervals. The independent speed attained perhaps 
was not unduly high, even after making allowance for the 
breakdown of the astern propelling unit, inasmuch as no 
attempt was made to push the vessel, or to inaugurate a com- 
mercial schedule. But, at the same time, it was not appreci- 
ably longer than would be occupied by such a craft as the one 
in question, which has not the turn of speed possessed by her 
consorts in this class, and certainly does not approach that 
with which craft designed for everyday commercial duty 
would need to be provided. 

The day when the Atlantic Ocean will be spanned by 
fleets of huge dirigibles — aerial liners in the fullest sense of 
the word — is not so far distant as one might possibly assume. 
There is every indication that regular services will be in 

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All About Aircraft of To-Day 

at 1 28' 26 tons, while the total weight of the ship, ready for 
flight, including fuel, oil and other accessories, is 1077 tons, 
leaving 2056 tons available for provisions, water, passengers 
and crew. The propelling equipment, following the lines 
embraced in connection with H.M.A. R34. and her consorts, 
comprised 5 units disposed in 4 gondolas, and with the fifth 
engine at end of the corridor. 

To indicate the advance which this vessel represented 
over the naval rigid vessels now in commission and which 
were under construction when the plans for the Transatlantic 
liner were prepared, the essential dimensions of the R34 and 
R32 are given for comparison. 

#34 #32 

Length .... 643 ft. 615 ft. 

Maximum diameter . . 78^ ,, 65 £ ,, 

Total capacity . . 2,000,000 cub. ft. 1,550,000 cub. ft. 

Total lift' ... 60 tons 47 tons 

Disposable lift . . 29 „ i6£ „ 

Total brake horse power . i»375 1,500 

From these figures it is possible to realise the degree of 
advance which the projected Transatlantic liner represents, 
the capacity being more than twice that of -R34. As already 
stated, these plans were completed many months before .R34 
made her sensational voyage, and, as a result of the 
experience which was acquired during the construction of 
R32 and .R37, both of which were carried out at Cardington 
under his direction and supervision, Mr. Mitchell has been 
able to amend his proposals, his revised ideas providing for 
an airship having a total capacity exceeding 8,000,000 cubic 
feet of hydrogen. To the uninitiated the advance from 
4,450,000 cubic feet to 8,000,000 cubic feet capacity may seem 

332 



Dirigibles for Trans-Oceanic Traffic 

to savour somewhat of the prevailing Teuton grandiose 
precept of the "kolossal," but it must be remembered that 
in airship construction, as in naval designing and the 
elaboration of plans for mercantile vessels, the designer is 
always far in advance of actual practice, and that development 
and evolution to larger, more powerfully-engined, and faster 
craft must inevitably prevail. When commercial airship 
construction settles down into its stride the pace will be 
found to be rapid, and for many years each succeeding vessel 
will represent a decided forward step in all essential 
dimensions and requirements. 

In so far as the Short-Mitchell proposal is concerned 
attention may possibly be attracted to the speed, which is set 
down at 60 knots. To some critics this will seem to be high ; 
to others it will be maintained as too low. But in elaborating 
his plans the designer has been governed by certain vital 
considerations. In the first place, speed costs money; so 
to crowd a high engine equipment into a vessel in order to 
satisfy the craving for speed is not only going to add very 
appreciably to weight, to the detriment of passenger- 
carrying capacity, but must also affect seriously the revenue- 
earning factor, and at the same time is going to enhance 
the fuel consumption item. I will refer to this again a little 
later. 

To bring about the reduction of engine weight to the 
minimum consistent with economical fuel consumption the 
designer must furnish the vessel with adequate power to 
enable it to take to the air and to conduct its journey under 
the most adverse weather conditions. If the airship is going 
to be considered merely as a fair-weather craft then it cannot 
possibly possess any commercial value. Business and 
trading exigencies demand that the vessel shall be competent 

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All About Aircraft ot To-Day 

to serve under all weather and wind conditions. It must 
start at the scheduled time; must be as punctual as the 
railway train and ocean liner. Of course, there are occasions 
when even marine vessels are delayed in starting by 
exceptionally adverse weather, but they are very rare, and 
the weather must be extremely heavy to bring, about a 
decision to postpone starting even for a few hours. The 
great steamship companies pride themselves upon their 
punctuality in starting, and any airship service wishing to 
achieve popularity must be equally prompt. 

To bid defiance to the weather the engine power must 
be adequate to rise superior to all wind conditions, and, in 
planning the propelling equipment the designer must carry 
out his calculations with the worst conditions as his standard. 
If we consult the Beaufort scale of wind force we find that 
No. 10 on the scale, a whole gale, which is occasionally 
experienced in the Atlantic, has a mean velocity of 59 miles 
— not knots — per hour. The storm and the hurricane being 
freaks of wind force may safely be eliminated, as they are 
very rarely experienced and represent conditions under 
which no vessel, either in the air or upon the sea, could hope 
to battle. So the whole gale may be accepted as the worst 
likely condition and as a precautionary measure against 
which engine power must be designed. On this basis the 
trans-Atlantic liner would have an approximate balance of 
power over the wind of 8 miles an hour — the knot is 
estimated as equal to i\& mile— which, while not being very 
pronounced, would enable the vessel, with her engines 
normally all out, to hold her own against the gale, that is 
presupposing the aviator considered it to be advisable to 
attempt to drive forward. 

Of course, the designer might provide a bigger margin 
334 



Dirigibles for Trans-Oceanic Traffic 

or balance of power, but in doing so he would have to 
sacrifice economy of running, disposable lift, and incur 
heavier fuel consumption. The fuel question is one of the 
most perplexing problems in airship design. Certainly it 
occurs in connection with the ocean liner and the railway 
express train, but to a lesser degree. Petrol is weighty— far 
more so than might be imagined, perhaps. In connection 
with the airship under description the fuel necessary to 
secure a radius of action of 6,000 sea miles at 60 knots weighs 
no less than 44 tons! It is the most difficult individual 
factor in the whole problem. Of course, the uninitiated will 
probably remark, seeing that the distance between England 
and New York is only approximately 3,000 miles, that the 
radius of action might be reduced. But can it ? 

Let us reflect a moment. We will suppose that a high 
wind, corresponding with No. 7 on the Beaufort scale, is 
raging when the airship sets out. I might have taken the 
whole gale once more for this illustration, but I have 
purposely selected the high wind for the simple reason that 
the former might only last a few hours or its zone be 
negotiated within a few miles, whereas the latter might be 
encountered throughout the whole of the journey across the 
Atlantic, as mercantile experience abundantly testifies. Now 
the high wind, according to the Beaufort scale, has a mean 
velocity of 35 miles an hour. The margin of power 
possessed by the airship would thus be 32 miles an hour. 
Consequently, during the trip she might not be able to 
average more than 32 miles an hour the whole way, although 
her engines were developing the designed 60 knots. If 
perfectly calm weather prevailed throughout the run the 
airship would be able to remain in the air for 100 hours when 
travelling at 60 knots, because her 44 tons of fuel would 

335 



All About Aircraft of To-Day 

suffice for 6,000 knots under such conditions. So if we 
divide the 6,000 by 60 we get the time-period or endurance 
capacity of the vessel upon the one fuel charge, with engines 
normally all out, which is 100 hours; but, owing to the 
persistence of the adverse high wind, blowing at 35 miles 
an hour, the airship is really only able to make headway at 
about 32 miles an hour, this being her independent speed. 
The distance between the two ports is 3,000 miles. Con- 
sequently, if we divide this figure, 3,000, by the independent 
speed of the airship, 32, the result is the time which will be 
occupied upon the journey — 94 hours. In other words, she 
will be called upon to remain in the air for 94 hours, whereas 
the limit of her endurance, under the most favourable 
conditions conceivable, is only 100 hours. Thus the margin 
is not so pronounced as it might at first sight appear ; hence 
the reason for the designer observing all precautions and 
taking the adverse conditions into full consideration when 
making his calculations. It is not to be supposed that the 
adverse wind would be encountered the whole way across, 
but such might be the case, and it is the contingency which 
must be borne in mind. When talking about speed in 
connection with aerial travel confusion is likely to arise, but 
it is imperative to master this issue as emphasised in another 
chapter. It is only the independent speed of the airship 
which counts. How serious a factor this is, and how urgent 
is the necessity to make allowance therefor, was borne out 
very pronouncedly upon the occasion of the outward journey 
of i?34- Her fuel tanks carried 4,900 gallons of petrol, which 
should have sufficed to keep her in the air at a speed of 47 
knots for 75 hours. As results proved, the supplies were 
barely sufficient, because at one time it was thought that 
the vessel would have to be taken in tow for a certain 

336 




The passenger aeroplane built by the Aircraft Manufacturing Company, Limited, showing 
collapsible hood to cabin, and method of boarding the craft. 




Vis-a-vis seating arrangement which enables the available space to be turned to 
greatest advantage to the comfort of the passengers. 

BY AIRCO BETWEEN LONDON AND PARIS 



Dirigibles for Trans-Oceanic Traffic 

distance, allowing the remaining few gallons of petrol to be 
used to permit the airship to gain her harbour. 

To bring home the influence of speed upon fuel con- 
sumption I will interpolate a few facts concerning the actual 
performance of i?34- With all engines running the fuel 
consumption at varying speeds is as follows : 

At 47 knots petrol consumption = 65 gallons per hour 
.. 42 „ „ „ 50-8 

„ 36 „ „ „ 47-4 

Only a cursory glance at these figures is required to show 
the most economical speed of the airship. To obtain an 
extra six knots — 36 to 42 — only an additional 34 gallons of 
petrol per hour are required, but to squeeze out the last five 
knots, and thus secure the normal full speed of the airship — 
42 to 47 knots — entails eating into the fuel supplies to the 
extent of an extra 142 gallons per hour. It is the old, old 
story : it is the last knot which runs away with the fuel. 
Obviously, therefore, the most economical speed for .R34 is 
about 40 knots, which is distinctively known as the cruising 
speed. But this, as events proved, is cutting things rather 
fine. 

Reverting to the Short-Mitchell airship we see that the 
speed selected is not only one which is likely to prove the 
most effective and economical from the all-round point of 
view, but that it is one affording the commander just that 
little up his sleeve which he must possess to hold his own 
against the tempestuous weather incidental to the Atlantic. 
What at first sight appears to be an extremely liberal radius 
of action, 6,000 nautical miles, upon examination proves to 
be none too much. It must not be forgotten that an airship 
W 337 



All About Aircraft of To-Day 

service, to pay its way and to become an established com- 
mercial success, will have to be run both winter and summer. 
So in elaborating his scheme the designer must make due 
allowance for the most adverse conditions. 

Of course, even with this radius of action it is quite 
possible that the weather encountered might prove to be so 
consistent and exasperatingly adverse as to render it in- 
sufficient. But the vessel would not be imperilled. She 
would merely summon assistance by her wireless, swing 
round nose to the wind, and settle at a low height above the 
water, riding freely with her drag anchors thrown out until 
succour came. If such extreme action were imperative the 
commander would take care to retain two or three hundred 
gallons of petrol in his tanks. Possibly, if the weather 
moderated and a tanker came up, she might be able to take 
on a further supply of fuel to enable her to reach her 
destination, but this is doubtful. It is probable that she 
would be taken in tow until approaching her destination, 
when, casting off the towing ropes, she would rise once more 
into the air to complete the last lap of the journey under her 
own power with the remaining supplies of fuel, which would 
also enable her to manoeuvre over her harbour to complete 
actual landing. The airship would never settle actually upon 
the water, since in so doing, she would become exposed to 
hogging and sagging strains from being poised upon two 
waves at once, and would inevitably break her back under 
her own weight. But she would be able to come down to 
within a hundred feet, or so, and her special anchors — 
drogues made of canvas in the form of a truncated cone — 
would enable her to ride in safety nose to the wind, even in 
the roughest weather, because she would offer the minimum 
of resistance to the wind and, by virtue of her inherent 

338 



Dirigibles for Trans-Oceanic Traffic 

lifting capacity, would continuously exert the tendency to 
rise, but be held in complete check by her drags. 

In preparing her designs Mr. Mitchell has gone 
thoroughly into every detail. The weights of the individual 
parts of the ship have been closely estimated, and these are 
given as follows : 



Longitudinal girders. 
Transverse girders . 
Diagonal wiring 
Circumferential wiring 
Cord wiring 
Lift and axial wires 



Main Structure 



. 32 tons 

• 53 » 
. 2-81 „ 

• i-55 „ 
. '50 ,, 

• -64 „ 



Total weight of structure 



14-00 tons 



Gas bags. . . . . . . 9-25 tons 

Outer cover, including ridge wires . . .378 
Gondolas, engines, petrol and oil systems .16-1 

Fins, rudders and controls . . . . i-88 

Corridor and fittings . . . . .127 

Miscellaneous -99 



Total fixed weight of airship 



447 tons 
587' » 



The foregoing represents the total dead weight of the 
ship in the empty condition. Before leaving this side of 
the question it is interesting to observe the weight of wire 
introduced into the hull and inner structure, which in the 
aggregate exceeds 5^ tons, or nearly one-twelfth of the total 
weight of the empty vessel. When one bears in mind the 
fineness of the wire which is used, one commences to realise 
the important part which wire plays in the fabrication of the 

339 



All About Aircraft of To-Day 

airship, since, in the continuous length, it would represent a 
few dozen miles. 

To the foregoing must be added the "live" weight of 
the vessel, that is, the weight of the passengers and crew, 
provisions, water, fuel oil, and other numerous accessories 
which do not enter into the actual construction of the vessel, 
and which may be more accurately described as the load or 
its equivalent. This is given by the designer as follows : 



Disposable weight 
Weight of 50 passengers (160 lb. each) 
Weight of 35 crew (160 lb. each) 
Passengers' baggage (100 lb. per passenger) 
Crews' kit (30 lb. per man) 
Water (1 gallon per head for 10 days) 
Provisions (8 lb. per head for 10 days) 
Mails 

Cutlery, etc. 
Miscellaneous . 
Water ballast . 
Petrol . 



Total disposable weight 



3'57 tons 

250 

223 

2 46 

3-8 

30 

20 

•8 

•16 
20 
44-0 



6452 tons 



Thus the total weight of the ship, ready for the air, which 
is the sum of the fixed and disposable weights, is 123*2 tons, 
while the total lift of the ship, with the bags inflated with 
hydrogen to 95 per cent, of their full capacity, is 128' 2 tons. 
This itemisation of the weights of the various factors con- 
cerned emphasises very convincingly the significance of the 
weight of the fuel, this being one-third of the total weight 
of the craft laden ready for its journey. Of course, the 
airship, in common with the steamship, becomes lighter hour 
by hour during the journey from the consumption of fuel and 

34o 



Dirigibles for Trans-Oceanic Traffic 

provisions. At the end of the estimated 10 days the total 
weight would be reduced by some 508 tons, that is premising 
all provisions, water and fuel were exhausted. But, at the 
same time, the lifting capacity of the ship would be somewhat 
lower than when she started on her voyage owing to the loss 
of hydrogen, this varying with the temperature experienced 
and the altitude to which the commander might be compelled 
to go during the trip. As is well known, rise of temperature 
is attended by expansion of the gas. If there should be 
twenty bags each bag would be inflated to within 5 per cent, 
of its full capacity, so that the margin extended to absorb 
this expansion would not be appreciable, and in practice 
would be speedily exceeded, especially when increase in 
temperature might be accompanied by necessity to rise to 
a high altitude, because increased density of the atmosphere 
also plays its part in the expanding tendency of the hydrogen. 
Consequently, although the weight of an airship is steadily 
and continuously diminishing during the- journey so is its 
lifting effort, though not to a proportionate degree. 

In preparing his plans the designer has departed some- 
what strikingly from the lines laid down in connection with 
the "R" class of Service airships. The latter are more or 
less slavish reproductions of the Zeppelin rigid dirigible, but 
experience therewith has indicated the possibility of intro- 
ducing several modifications which would appreciably 
enhance the strength, safety and general all-round efficiency 
of the craft. 

Externally, divergence from Teuton practice may not be 
very striking, but in so far as the structural details are con- 
cerned there are many decided improvements. Instead of 
spacing the girders somewhat closely together, as is the Service 
practice, in the Short-Mitchell trans-Atlantic airship they 

34 1 



All About Aircraft of To-Day 

are fewer in number and consequently are spaced wider 
apart; but this enables the girders to be made proportion- 
ately stronger, thereby extending greater safety against local 
damage. The transverse and longitudinal girders are also 
designed to take longitudinal and sheer stresses in the main 
and only small distorting stresses caused by varying con- 
ditions. All redundant parts are eliminated so that the 
stresses become definite in any given condition. To com- 
pensate for the wide spacing of the longitudinal girders 
longitudinal wires are introduced between the latter to 
support the outer cover. The diagonal wires are also placed 
outside the girders instead of inside as at present practised, 
so as to be clear of all pressure exerted by the gas-bags. 
Another improvement upon the current practice is to transfer 
the main gas pressure from the rigid structure to circum- 
ferential wires and lift wires from re-entrant angles at the 
top. 

Probably the most striking deviation from contemporary 
ideas is in connection with the design of the gas-bags 
themselves. Instead of being drum shape they are given 
pear-shaped ends and are supported by loose wires. The 
curvature of the ends of the gas-bags and the disposal of 
the wires are carried out in such a manner as to obviate all 
distorting stresses under the average condition of pressure. 

As a matter of fact, the improvement in the design of 
the gas-bags constitutes one of the outstanding characteristics 
of this vessel, and is indicative of the study which has been 
brought to bear upon this important factor as a result of 
many years' experience upon the part of Messrs. Short 
Brothers, Limited, concerning the action of gas when at 
work, as in imparting ascensional effort to a balloon. The 
hydrogen, being lighter than air, naturally strives to rise, 

342 




FLYING DE LUXE 

The comfortable and spacious cabin of the Vickers commercial aeroplane 




FOR CIVILIAN FLIGHT 

The "Airco," with enclosed cabin, which inaugurated civili in flight betwesn the 
British and French capitals. 



Dirigibles for Trans-Oceanic Traffic 

but in so doing finds itself obstructed by the walls of the bag. 
Gas, however, is compressible, and so despite the restraining 
influence which it encounters does persist in obeying the 
natural tendency to rise to the top of the bag, leaving, the lower 
part somewhat flaccid. In these circumstances the pressure 
exerted upon the bag is not uniform. It attains its maximum 
at the top, while the minimum is at the bottom. In the early 
French dirigible experiments — a similar practice must be 
observed to-day with airships of the non-rigid type — a 
ballonnet is introduced. This becomes inflated with 
atmospheric air and consequently distended. In so doing 
it tends to equalise the pressure upon the gas-bag by 
keeping the lower part, where the minimum pressure is 
exerted by the hydrogen, at full extension. 

In the rigid airship the strain imposed cumulatively upon 
the top of the structure from the contents of possibly twenty 
bags is likely to become somewhat pronounced, and the 
unequal pressure thus exercised introduces bending moments 
and other distorting stresses in the supporting structure, 
which can only be counterbalanced to a certain degree by 
the tension of radial wires. Under the new method of 
constructing the bags along the lines which have been 
evolved, thereby giving them semi-hemispherical or pear- 
shaped ends, the circumferential tension in the fabric, and 
also of the circumferential wires or frames under average 
condition of pressure, are kept constant, thereby eliminating 
the necessity to introduce most of the radial wires. This in 
turn reduces the pressure on the longitudinal girders and 
the bending moment in the frames. The whole of the lift 
of the bags is taken by the circumferential wires, which are 
secured at the lower ends only, and the lift wires, which are 
led from the re-entrant angles to the corridor where most of 

343 



All About Aircraft of To-Day 

the weights are concentrated, or to the gondolas at the sides. 
The lift wires are passed through the bags, so that in the 
event of a bag being deflated the tension on the wires suffers 
no undue increase. By virtue of the arrangement which has 
been carefully evolved, the distorting stresses imposed upon 
the rigid framework of the vessel, due to the gas pressure, 
are virtually eliminated, thereby releasing the girders to 
fulfil their primary function — namely, the provision of 
longitudinal rigidity. In this manner also the maximum of 
strength is secured with the minimum of weight, while the 
outstanding advantages of the non-rigid and rigid types are 
secured with the reduction of the inherent disadvantages to 
the minimum. Finally, the new idea enables the stresses on 
the different members to be calculated easily, because they 
are definite. 

From the passenger's point of view the feature which will 
arouse the greatest measure of interest is the provision of 
accommodation to meet his convenience. Aerial travel will 
never, at least not until development has been carried to a 
very advanced stage, be able to offer the level of spacious 
luxury identified with the contemporary liner, but it can ex- 
tend the luxurious comfort incidental to railway travel as 
offered by the Pullman car. This is the model which has 
been accepted for the Atlantic airship. In the Admiralty 
craft the gondolas, in which are mounted the engines, are 
suspended from the triangular keels or backbone of the air- 
ship, the tunnel offered by this triangular girder system 
constituting the means of communication between the various 
gondolas and other parts of the vessel. In the Short-Mitchell 
aerial liner a long corridor-like apartment is suspended from 
the triangular girder keelson, and extending the full length 
amidships. This continuous apartment is 380 feet in length, 

344 



Dirigibles for Trans-Oceanic Traffic 

and rectangular in section, being 12 feet in width by 8 feet 
in height. It is completely enclosed, but the portholes with 
which it is freely provided offer uninterrupted views of the 
country beneath, and afford adequate natural illumination, 
supplemented by electric lighting. 

At the extreme prow is the control cabin carrying the 
bridge, chart-house, and all instruments requisite for the 
navigation of the craft. The officers and crew have their 
quarters forward, thus being completely isolated from the 
passengers. Access to the various parts of the vessel, such 
as the stern engine-room, wing gondolas and their motors, 
as well as to valves and so forth, is provided by the crawling 
way, as the tunnel in the triangular girder system forming 
the backbone of the shfp is called, and these facilities are 
provided at specific intervals to assure the efficient working 
of the ship. 

Walking from stem to stern one passes from the crew's 
quarters into the drawing-room, measuring 30 feet in length 
by 12 feet wide, where there is seating accommodation for 
30 passengers, the lounges and chairs being disposed to 
allow the space to be turned to best advantage. The draw- 
ing-room leads into the passengers' main sleeping quarters, 
which follows the broad principles of the Pullman sleeping- 
car of the American railways except that separate single-berth 
cabins are provided for each passenger. The sleeping space 
occupies the greater part of the available length of the 
passenger accommodation, being 150 feet in length and sub- 
divided into four saloons. The two extreme saloons each 
have accommodation for eight passengers, while the two 
inner saloons will receive twelve passengers each. The 
sleeping cabins, which are single, instead of being upper and 
lower as upon the American railway cars, flank either side 

345 



All About Aircraft of To-Day 

of a central gangway, sufficiently wide to admit comfortable 
movement. The sleeping accommodation is permanent in 
character; that is to say, the saloons are not converted into 
lounges during the day as is the case with American railway 
Pullman cars. 

Passing from the sleeping saloons one enters the dining 
saloon, capable of seating 56 passengers at the one sitting. 
The arrangement is similar to that followed in our railway 
dining cars, with tables set at right angles to, and on either 
side of, the central gangway, each table accommodating four 
passengers. This saloon measures 42 feet in length and leads 
into the aft sleeping saloon, having ten single berths. In the 
stern of the vessel is a smoke room, 32 feet in length, capable 
of seating 32 passengers, while at the extreme stern comes 
the aft engine-room, galley, and petrol store. The relatively 
limited space available for the convenience of passengers has 
been turned to the most efficient account, and, generally 
considered, is spacious, at least in the sense of length, while 
the degree of luxury extended will be found to exceed ex- 
pectations. Moreover the views obtainable from the dining 
and lounge saloons are of the most extensive character, the 
windows being large continuous squares of glass. 

In a rival proposal which has been elaborated for a 
trans-Atlantic airship the passenger accommodation is 
placed on top of the airship ; but the designers of the Short- 
Mitchell vessel, after discussing the question in all its bear- 
ings, decided that the underslung position was preferable. 
In the first place, a more complete view is offered from 
beneath the ship than can be the case when the accommoda- 
tion is placed on top, because, in the last-named instance the 
downward angle of vision, which is naturally the direction in 
which observation would want to be made, suffers interrup- 

346 



Dirigibles for Trans-Oceanic Traffic 

tion by the contour of the vessel itself. In the airship under 
review the passengers are able to obtain a direct vertical view 
if they so desire, while even when seated they secure just as 
wide and uninterrupted a view as is offered from a seat in a 
Pullman railway car. 

Another and far more vital issue governed their decision. 
Hydrogen is continuously issuing from the gas-bags. It 
cannot be prevented. It is essentially due to the property 
of diffusion incidental to this gas which enables it to 
permeate the finest and most resistant fabric of which the 
gas-bags may be composed, while, of course, under expansion 
a certain quantity escapes automatically through the valves. 
The hydrogen, being lighter than the air, naturally ascends, 
although, of course, almost instantly after making its escape, 
it dissipates in the surrounding atmosphere. Nevertheless, 
when the passenger accommodation is placed on top of the 
airship, the surrounding air is likely to be somewhat highly 
charged with hydrogen. While this gas exercises no in- 
jurious effect upon the human body, and does not affect 
respiration in any way, it nevertheless constitutes a dangerous 
atmosphere, and one in which it would be exceedingly 
risky to have a naked light, even a match, because the 
air would be highly explosive. Consequently it would be 
hazardous to provide the travellers, when their accommoda- 
tion is placed upon the top of the ship, with the opportunity 
to enjoy the company of My Lady Nicotine. On the other 
hand, by placing the passenger accommodation beneath the 
vessel enhanced safety is assured, while smoking-room 
amenities can be provided. No escaping hydrogen would 
haunt this low level so that indulgence in smoking might 
be followed with impunity. It will be remembered that 
in the case of the Zeppelin passenger-cruising aerial yacht 

347 



All About Aircraft of To-Day 

Deutschland the passenger cabins were placed beneath the 
vessel. This arrangement also facilitates embarkation and 
disembarkation, passengers being able to step directly from 
cabin to terra firma and vice versa. 

The vessel which I have described has been designed 
essentially for trans-Atlantic travel, but similar principles 
would prevail in the elaboration of craft for longer trans- 
oceanic journeys, such as between London and South 
America, Vancouver and Japan, or London and Australia 
via India, the Straits Settlements and New Guinea. For 
these longer journeys far larger craft would be employed, and 
increased dimensions would enable more spacious passenger 
accommodation, as well as a more elaborate scale of luxury, 
to be introduced if desired ; but in point of comfort the 
trans-Atlantic craft would leave nothing to be desired ; cer- 
tainly it would be comparable with the drawing-room scale 
incidental to Pullman railway cars. As travellers are quite 
prepared to tolerate confinement upon a railway Pullman for 
four or five days while crossing the North American con- 
tinent, they would not object to similar accommodation over 
an aerial journey of 3,000 miles, which it is estimated would 
be covered in about 72 hours under normal weather 
conditions. 

Such is the airship liner which has been designed and 
which is ready for construction the moment finance becomes 
sufficiently imaginative to realise the possibilities of trans- 
Atlantic aerial travel. A vessel of this type is likely to cost 
about ,£380,000, although, if the intentions of the designers 
based upon more recently acquired experience involving a 
larger craft were followed, the capital outlay would be nearer 
,£500,000, but its carrying capacity would probably be in- 
creased to 100 passengers. A fleet of four vessels, the mini- 

348 



Dirigibles for Trans-Oceanic Traffic 

mum with which it would be possible to maintain a regular 
efficient service capable of bidding defiance to wind and 
weather and of satisfying commerce, would thus entail an 
expenditure of approximately ,£2,000,000. 

In view of the magnitude of the capital investment in- 
volved, doubts might arise in the minds of the prudent as to 
whether such a service could ever pay. Upon this point no 
anxiety whatever exists in the minds of the designers. Mr. 
Mitchell, from his experience in connection with steamship 
travel, is convinced that more than a sufficient number of 
travellers would be steadily forthcoming who would be pre- 
pared to face a heavy tariff for the ability to travel by a fast 
airship. The speed attainable would be an irresistible attrac- 
tion, because it would reduce the length of the interruption to 
business to only two or three days. Fortified with this know- 
ledge he is convinced that sufficient passengers would be 
found for every trip, at ;£ioo to ^150 per head, to occupy 
the whole of the available passenger carrying accommodation. 
Upon this basis a ship could be expected to earn from ,£5,000 
to £l , 500 gross per trip, or from ,£10,000 to ,£15,000 each 
round passage. Upon the basis of thirty round trips per year 
each representing a total travelling time of seven days per 
round journey — in favourable weather the trip would be made 
quickly, while in bad weather it would suffer appreciable 
delay so that an average of 3^ days per single journey might 
safely be made — this would aggregate 210 travelling days per 
year, bringing in a gross revenue ranging from £"300,000 
to ^450,000, or allowing only 75 per cent, available carrying 
capacity being occupied, ,£225,000 to ,£337,500 per annum. 

The allowance of 210 days' travelling out of a possible 
365 days may appear to be low, but one must not forget that 
certain time allowances would be necessary upon the com- 

349 



All About Aircraft of To-Day 

pletion of each single trip to take in fuel, water, provisioning 
and tuning-up, while upon the conclusion of the round trip 
a more elaborate overhaul of machinery would require to be 
made. The airship is still in its infancy; it cannot be placed 
on a parallel with the ocean liner, which is the sum of over 
a century's steady development and which is driven by 
machinery brought to a wonderful stage of perfection, re- 
liability and efficiency. Still, even our greyhounds of the sea 
do not work the whole year round; they are withdrawn 
periodically from service for elaborate overhaul. The airship 
would need to be similarly tended, and would likewise have 
to be sent into dock at intervals of a few months to have her 
structure thoroughly examined, repaired where necessary, 
gas-bags overhauled, and outer covering re-doped. Con- 
sequently, all things considered, it would be doubtful whether 
a ship, such as I have described, would be able to put in 
more than 210 days of actual travelling during the year. 

Even the running costs have been estimated with a fair 
degree of accuracy, and it is not likely that actual results 
would exceed the estimates in this connection. Fuel charges 
are known, as are also those of wages for crew, as well as 
provisions and other incidentals, steamship experience being 
of decisive value in this connection. Hydrogen can be safely 
estimated at 10s. per 1,000 cubic feet, the cost of initially in- 
flating the 4,450,000 cubic footer, with which I have been 
dealing, coming out at ^2,225, an insignificant sum in the 
circumstances. The only serious factor open to discussion 
is depreciation, and upon this issue authorities vary consider- 
ably, one estimating the life of the airship at three years. But 
Mr. Mitchell assumes a more optimistic opinion upon this 
subject. He does not see why an airship of improved design, 
properly tended, should not be able to offer ten years' steady 

35o 



Dirigibles for Trans-Oceanic Traffic 

service at least. Upon this basis the depreciation factor 
would come out at about ,£38,000 per annum. 

The span of life of the trans-Atlantic airship is not so 
likely to be affected by wear and tear as by risk of being 
superseded. Once development sets in in grim earnest a 
situation comparable with that which has prevailed upon the 
high seas for so many years past may safely be anticipated. 
Each succeeding vessel will be so much larger, faster and 
more luxurious than its predecessor, and the travelling public, 
as a rule, always patronises the last arrival. In this way 
depreciation might be enhanced, although it can be off-set 
by the levy of the maximum charges for the new vessel, 
graduating the fares according to the age of the liner and its 
degree of comfort and standard of luxury. For many years 
to come passenger accommodation upon airships is certain 
to be limited, and demand for berths, once the public has 
become assured that the way of the air is as safe as, and 
more comfortable as well as quicker than, the way of the 
sea, will exceed the supply. Accordingly the latest com- 
petitor for patronage will always be able to command what 
might even appear to be exorbitant fares if it does not even 
create new traffic. The question of fares, depreciation, and 
life of the vessel will undoubtedly adjust itself to the occasion. 
The spirit of competition must be fostered. In this way the 
negotiation of the Atlantic by air, in comfort and luxury, 
within 30 to 40 hours, under favourable conditions, will be 
achieved. As to what speeds will be recorded in the air with 
this type of craft it is dangerous to hazard any definite state- 
ment, but it is generally assumed that they will range from 
80 to 90 knots maximum. The highest speeds will be 
attained by the aeroplane, which constitutes another and 
different story. 

3Si 



CHAPTER XX 

The Aerial Mercantile Marine as a Profession 

"V17TTH the popularisation and development of commercial 
" ™ flying it is only logical to anticipate a desire upon the 
part of the boys and youths of to-day to enter this field in 
a professional capacity. How can I become an airman? 
Such is the question one hears on all sides. 

At the present moment it must be frankly admitted that 
opportunity is strictly limited. The end of the Great War 
found the country possessed of a huge aerial force of 30,000 
officers and 25,000 cadets in training. Such a force would 
be adequate to meet the needs of civilian flying for decades 
to come if the clock stood still, but Father Time waits for no 
man. Nevertheless many years will necessarily pass before 
the whole of these trained craftsmen, should they decide to 
continue to identify themselves with aerial transport, be 
absorbed. 

What may be described as the Aerial Mercantile Marine 
can be subdivided into several branches. Pilots are required 
for aeroplanes and for dirigibles; mechanics are necessary to 
attend to the aeromotors; while other hands are essential 
for building and maintaining the structures of the two types 
of flying machine, as Well as to staff aerodromes and the 
auxiliary departments identified with the maintenance of the 
way of the air, such as meteorologists, wireless operators, 
photographers, riggers, and so on. 

352 




A simple dashboard carrying instruments indicating air-speed, temperature 
of water in radiator, height indicator switches, and inclinometer. This 
illustration also shows the wheel mounted on joy-stick for control of 
lateral stability, the joy-stick itself being used solely for manipulation of 
the rudder. 




Dashboard of aeroplane, showing instruments for ascertaining height, -speed, 
engine revolutions, petrol and lubricating oil pressure, and inclinometer. In 
the centre is mounted the aviator's compass, showing the compass card float- 
ing in alcohol in a sealed bowl. 

HOW THE AIRMAN FINDS HIS WAY IN THE AIR 



Aerial Mercantile Marine as a Profession 

The future development of civil or commerical flying is 
obscure at the moment, but there is reason to believe that 
the whole of the directing side of the question will be 
conducted by the Air Ministry as far as Great Britain is 
concerned. As is well known, this has been subdivided into 
two broadly defined departments — Service and Civilian 
flying, respectively. 

The system which should be encouraged is obvious. 
Service needs are certain to be heavy, the intention at present 
being to maintain several squadrons in being. This will 
necessitate the creation of a huge force of pilots and 
navigators, part of which will need to be regarded as a 
reserve force. It will not be found possible, however, to 
employ the whole of this reserve force ; consequently we 
should see the creation of a Royal Air Force Reserve to 
officer the commercial fleet, in the same way as our ocean 
liners offer an attractive field for the Royal Naval Reserve. 
In this way we should be assured of a highly efficient and 
live force available for national duty at a critical moment — 
one trained to the top notch of efficiency, of sustained skill, 
and wide experience. 

If such a policy be followed then the door to the higher 
appointments in aerial service will be via the Service, and 
will lead to the creation of a force comparable with that 
incidental to the Navy and Army. Such a force is urgently 
demanded at the moment. We have few competent aeroplane 
designers, although the war appreciably added to their ranks, 
but they have been fully absorbed by commerce. Training 
for these appointments, the plums of the "flying" world, 
will follow lines far different from those that have been 
practised hitherto, and will only be available to those who 
have graduated through a stern school, working from the 
x 353 



All About Aircraft of To-Day 

bottom up. Piloting an aeroplane purely and simply is 
relatively easy, but in future the man at the wheel will need 
to be more than a mere joy-stick manipulator. He will need 
to be a master of a number of sciences, the compeer of the 
commander of an ocean greyhound, and at the same time of 
a plastic and receptive mind, willing to keep pace with 
progress. Training for such positions as these will be 
rigorous and difficult, while progress will be relatively slow, 
but the prizes to be won should be worthy of the training 
and comparable in calibre with the commissions obtainable 
in the other Services. 

Of course, it is only reasonable to anticipate that, as time 
passes, we shall witness the arrival of the aerial counterparts 
of the ocean tramp and coasting vessels, the positions upon 
which will be open to those who have not passed through 
the official portals, but who have earned their "ticket" from 
the Air Ministry by progressive examinations. The expense 
entailed in gaining the position of control of the "air- 
jammers," or aerial tramps, will not be so expensive as that 
entailed in rising to command of an express aeroplane or 
ocean-going dirigible, while probably the remuneration 
will prove to be less attractive. Yet the knowledge which 
it will assimilate will be every whit as diverse and pro- 
found. 

Manufacturers will undoubtedly maintain pilot and 
commanding staffs of their own, but as time proceeds 
undoubtedly they will come to depend for their requirements 
upon the men who have graduated through the Service. To 
a certain degree they will raise and develop their own pilots, 
notably for testing purposes, which is a branch of the craft 
distinctly apart, and which demands a more than passing 
experience of the handling of the plane and its possible 

354 



Aerial Mercantile Marine as a Profession 

whimsicalities. It is from the results of the test of the new 
model that the designer receives confirmation of the practi- 
cability of his ideas. With the elaboration of constitutional 
laws, however, gained as a result of scientific and technical 
mastery of the problems involved, the task of the tester is 
certain to become less risky, except in connection with 
machines designed essentially for military and naval 
service. 

Our colleges and educational institutions are devoting 
wider attention to the air in its relation to transport, although 
it is to be feared, that those associated with these enterprises 
are disposed to display a somewhat parsimonious attitude 
towards the members of their staffs in regard to emolument. 
One of our rising aeroplane technicians related to me a 
personal experience in this connection. He had graduated 
through college, making a special study of aeronautics, 
aero-dynamics, and the allied sciences, and had passed 
through his examinations with flying colours. The war 
extended him a certain opportunity to turn his talents to 
advantage, his abilities being freely recognised. But with 
the cessation of hostilities came the chance to continue the 
investigations and research in the channels which made such 
profound appeal to him. But the reward offered, namely, 
,£250 a year, represented but a poor return for the heavy 
expense he had incurred in the acquisition of his knowledge. 
The outlook being so inadequate, the flying machine 
enthusiast promptly crushed all ambitions to excel in the 
new science. The realm of the air was abandoned for 
another branch of commerce which offered far more attractive 
possibilities. Aero-dynamic research and investigation, so 
far as he is concerned, has been definitely abandoned. If 
we desire to aspire in the realm of the air we shall need to be 

355 



All About Aircraft of To-Day 

far more generous in our appreciation of brain-power than 
is the case to-day, although the above treatment is typical 
of our attitude towards the technician. 

In so far as the purely mechanical side is concerned, the 
scope for ability is equally narrow at the moment. The 
aeromotor, being an offspring of the motor-car engine, 
graduation through the works identified with the latter 
industry may be regarded as the natural stepping-stone to 
the aerial realm. But here again a brain of a different type 
and level is demanded, one involving not only knowledge of 
design, but of metals and resource, to assist in the acquisi- 
tion of a higher degree of efficiency, reliability and durability. 
At the moment the openings for pioneering are not brilliant, 
unless it be in connection with the evolution of a new type 
of prime mover. The high-speed internal combustion 
engine, as evolved for the aeroplane and dirigible, more 
especially the former, appears to have been brought to the 
limit of its development. It is not the ideal engine for the 
aeroplane, but at the moment is that most closely coinciding 
with requirements — hence its utilisation. Brilliant minds are 
seeking for a more efficient system of generating, power, one 
comparable in weight per horse-power, but less susceptible 
to easy derangement. The gas turbine represents one 
promising field of development, while the wireless trans- 
mission of energy is likewise arousing considerable attention. 
The electric motor would be ideal for aerial duty were it 
possible to draw upon some outside source of conserved 
electric energy. In the present stage of knowledge it cannot 
be used, because although its efficiency is high the necessity 
to rely upon accumulators rules it out of application, owing 
to questions of weight and limited radius of action per 
charge. 

35 6 



Aerial Mercantile Marine as a Profession 

It is for this reason that more concentrated effort is being 
expended upon the wireless transmission of energy. And 
we are probably within more reasonable reach of this 
achievement than may be popularly supposed. The French 
have already been able to record some startling achievements 
in this direction, having succeeded in piloting and driving an 
aeroplane from the ground, with energy supplied from a land 
station, over varying distances. 

The possibility of the electric motor displacing the present 
aeromotor opens up vistas of enormous significance. Such 
an aeromotor will bring the electrical engineer into the aerial 
field in a hundred and one different ways. Control will be 
reduced to the simplest task — the movement of a single lever. 
It will revolutionise aerial movement as completely as it has 
transformed railway travel, enabling, far higher speeds than 
have yet been recorded to be attained; but this is a field, 
at the moment, for the inventor both trained and untrained, 
if such a term may be employed, in the demands of the air, 
but it is one of distinct promise for the simple reason that it 
will throw the gates of knowledge open far wider. 

Coming to the actual design and construction of the 
aeroplane itself it is obvious that many developments are 
possible in this direction. Wood will give way to metal as 
a structural material, and this in turn will stimulate the 
science of metallurgy, more particularly in its application 
to the air, where extreme strength combined with lightness 
is so imperative. We are even destined to witness the 
utilisation of metal instead of linen for wings, in which 
direction some notable strides are to be recorded. As a 
matter of fact, one of our leading, aeroplane designers has 
expressed the opinion that by 192 1 metal will have displaced 
fabric in this connection, which will represent a revolution 

357 



All About Aircraft of To-Day 

of no mean order, and may lead to a complete revision of our 
prevailing notions concerning the flying machine. 

While inventiveness was encouraged under the pressure 
of war it was fostered along somewhat well-defined lines to 
meet the needs of the moment. There was not time to carry 
out the extended test which is possible and imperative under 
peace conditions. Consequently, much of what was learned 
during the five years of hostilities will need to be forgotten. 
In these circumstances the achievements and line of thought 
followed in connection with the conquest of the air in the past 
offers no reliable criterion of the trend of things in future. 
Quite a new type of "flying" engineer, pilot, navigator and 
commander, as well as designer, will be required. At the 
moment the indications are somewhat vague. Development 
is being conducted along lines which at present lack defini- 
tion, so that it is somewhat difficult to narrate emphatically 
precisely what openings will obtain for those who wish to 
follow aerial operations in a professional capacity. But this 
much is certain. It will become a field for the privileged and 
diligent worker; will create a type which at the moment is 
non-existent. 

Now that more leisurely methods can be practised, more 
severe discrimination of the human material will undoubtedly 
prevail. War has enabled a mass of statistics to be gathered, 
the resolution of which must prove of assistance in this re- 
spect. From the material thus obtained it has been found 
that the strain inseparable from flying falls almost entirely 
upon the nervous system, which must be strikingly tough to 
withstand the ordeal. Of course, it is also imperative that 
the heart and lungs and other organs should be perfectly 
sound, because they are subjected to imposing strains due to 
rapid and extensive variations in air pressure and density 

358 



Aerial Mercantile Marine as a Profession 

arising from change of altitude. It has been advocated that 
the initial medical examination should not only be of a most 
searching character, but that further examinations should be 
conducted at intervals to ensure a continuance of physical and 
nervous fitness. 

Many interesting forms of apparatus have been devised 
to assist in the selection of men to serve as pilots and to deter- 
mine their fitness for this responsible post. Among these 
may be mentioned the mercurial manometer having a rubber 
tube and mouthpiece. The candidate is instructed to take a 
deep breath, and then to expend the expiatory effort through 
the tube. In this way he should be able to force the mercury 
up to a pressure of 40 millimetres and to hold it at that point 
for 40 seconds. While thus engaged a reading of the pulse 
is taken at intervals of 5 seconds and the results recorded. 
Another interesting process is to time the interval occupied 
in thinking and responding to a signal, a stop watch being 
used for this operation. Flying depends upon quick and 
decisive action, especially when it is remembered that the 
flying machine may be travelling at 150 to 200 feet per 
second. 

It is also incumbent that one should possess what may be 
described as the flying temperament. Some pilots are to the 
manner born ; they take as naturally to the air as a duck takes 
to water, are fearless, and after a short period of acclimatisation 
to the new conditions, appear to become invested with a 
sixth — flying — sense. In some cases this "instinct" appears 
to be developed; in others it is latent and demands careful 
incubation as it were. This is the reason why the Air 
Ministry to-day is making such efforts to catch the fledgling- 
young — at about fifteen years of age — experience having 
proved that if taken in hand at this age and submitted to the 

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All About Aircraft of To-Day 

correct training he is excellent raw material, allowing" all the 
essential requirements necessary to yield a first-class pilot to 
be developed to their utmost. The "life" of an active pilot 
is somewhat speculative, sufficient experience not having been 
accumulated in this connection to allow a reliable and con- 
clusive impression to be formed. War experience in this 
connection is of no practical value, owing to the abnormal 
pressure at which flying was conducted, the need for intensive 
training, incomplete development and the intense strain im- 
posed upon the nervous system. Under peace conditions, 
which are certain to be less strenuous, it is anticipated that 
the period of serviceability will be about 15 years, there 
being few men whose physique and nervous system will allow 
them to remain in a responsible position in the air after 
reaching thirty years of age. Of course, such men upon the 
conclusion of air sen-ice, would be invaluable for the fulfil- 
ment of ground duties, many of which are quite as exacting 
as those incidental to the air, and to serve in the capacity 
of instructors. 

Nevertheless, the issue concerning the span of service- 
ability of a pilot is decidedly uncertain. The flying machine 
must undergo considerable evolution. That of 1935 — fifteen 
years hence — will probably be found to have as little resem- 
blance to its prototype of 1919, as does the contemporary 
ocean liner bear to the Comet. Progress, at the moment, in 
the world of flying is advancing at an extraordinarily rapid 
rate and cannot fail to exercise a corresponding influence 
upon the personnel. 



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